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SMITHSONIAN DEPOSIT 



SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION 

#,.$ BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 

BULLETIN 52 



EARLY MAN IN SOUTH AMERICA 



ALES HRDLlCKA 

Curator of the Division of Physical Anthropology 
U. S. National Museum 



IN COLLABORATION "WITH 



W. H. HOLMES 



BAILEY WILLIS 



Head Curator of the Department of Anthropology Member of the United States Geological Survey 

U. S. National Museum 

AND 

FRED. EUGENE WRIGHT and CLARENCE N. FENNER 

Penologist Assistant Petrologist 

Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Washington 




tt< OF CO/Vo 

EP 6 i9iv 



WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 

1912 









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<h&, 



LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL 



Smithsonian Institution, 
Bureau of American Ethnology, 

Washington, D. C, June 2, 1911. 

Sir: Five years ago the Bureau published as Bulletin 33, under 
the title "Skeletal Remains Suggesting or Attributed to Early Man 
in North America/' the results of Doctor Hrdlicka's comprehensive 
researches on that subject. I now have the honor to submit for 
your consideration the manuscript of "Early Man in South America," 
the work of the same author in collaboration with Prof. W. H. 
Holmes, Mr. Bailey Willis, of the United States Geological Survey, 
and Messrs. Fred. Eugene Wright and Clarence E. Fenner, of the 
Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, 
and to suggest its publication, with your approval, as Bulletin 52 
of the Bureau's series. 

Yours, very respectfully, 

F. W. Hodge, 
Ethnologist in Charge. 
Dr. Charles D. Walcott, 

Secretary of the Smithsoriian Institution, 

Washington, D. C. 

in 



PREFACE 

Between the years 1899 and 1907 the writer carried on a series of 
investigations with regard to the various skeletal remains which 
suggested or were attributed to ancient man in North America. 
These studies resulted in a number of publications, 1 culminating in a 
general treatise comprehending the whole subject, which appeared as 
Bulletin 33 of the Bureau of American Ethnology. The results of 
the investigations seemed at first to lend support to the theory of 
considerable antiquity for some of the remains presented as evidence, 
as, for example, the two low skulls discovered at Trenton, New Jersey. 
Subsequent researches however, cleared up most of the uncertain 
points and the entire inquiry appeared to establish the fact that no 
specimen had come to light in the northern continent, which, from 
the standpoint of physical anthropology, represented other than a 
relatively modern man. 

The possibility of discovering osseous remains of man of geologic 
antiquity in North America still exists, but, as was brought out in 
the studies referred to, any find to be accepted as establishing the 
existence of such man would have to be unequivocally authenticated 
by the anthropologist and the geologist working in cooperation. The 
various conclusions reached in these studies seem to have been quite 
generally accepted and no further discoveries of osseous remains 
pointing to the presence of early man in this part of the world have 
been made. 

While occupied with the subject of man's antiquity in North Amer- 
ica, the writer became more directly interested in the reports of re- 
lated discoveries in South America, particularly in Argentina. It was 
soon found, however, that these reports, or at least those dealing with 
the finds of human remains up to 1907, were singularly incomplete 
and unsatisfactory. The records of the many cases were full of 
defects and uncertainties which, owing to the distance of the field and 
other difficulties, seemed insurmountable obstacles preventing the 
formation of a definite opinion as to the merit of any of the finds. 

1 The Crania of Trenton, N. J., and their Bearing upon the Antiquity of Man in that Region; in Bulletin 
of the American Museum of Natural History, xn, pp. 23-62, New York, 1902. 

The Lansing Skeleton; in American Anthropologist, N. s., v, 323-330, Lancaster, Pa., June, 1903. 

A Report on the Trenton Femur (written in 1902), published with E . Volk's The Archaeology of the Del- 
aware Valley; Papers ofthePeabody Museum, v, Cambridge, Mass., 1911. 

Skeletal Remains Suggesting or Attributed to Early Man in North America; Bulletin S3 of the Bureau 
of American Ethnology, pp. 1-113, pis. i-xxi, figs. 1-16, Washington, 1907. 

V 



VI PKEFACE 

But before the close of the year which marked the conclusion of the 
writer's inquiries relating to ancient man in North America (1907), 
there appeared in Argentina an important resume of the evidence 
relating to the man of the Pampean formations in that country, by 
Lehmann-Nitsche and a number of Ins associates, and this was soon 
followed by the reports on the apparently epoch-making discoveries 
of the Tetraprothomo (1907), Diproihomo (1909), and Homo pampseus 
(1909), by F. Ameghino, all of which stimulated to a high point the 
writer's interest in the question of early man in the southern conti- 
nent. Then, with the earnest aid of Prof. W. H. Holmes, who has 
always had much at heart the impartial solution of the problem of 
man's antiquity in America, and through the good offices of the 
present Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, it became possible 
for the writer to visit Argentina. In recognition of the importance 
of expert geologic evidence in studies of this kind, it was arranged that 
the writer should be accompanied by a competent geologist, ac- 
quainted with formations in other parts of the world allied to those of 
the pampas. The selection for this service fell on Mr. Bailey Willis, 
of the United States Geological Survey, who had done important work 
on the loess and related formations in North America and in China. 

The chief objects of the expedition were the examination of the skele- 
tal remains relating to early man that are preserved in Brazil and in 
Argentina; the study of at least the principal localities and of the 
deposits from which the finds were reported to proceed ; and the dis- 
covery, if possible, and the collection of osseous, archeologic, or other 
specimens bearing on man's antiquity. 

It was hoped that the work on the ground, carried to such extent as 
the circumstances might allow, would make it possible to form more 
definite conclusions concerning the individual finds than the litera- 
ture on these warranted, and that possibly by means of new discover- 
ies additional light might be shed on the whole subject of early man in 
South America, particularly in Argentina. 

The journey was undertaken, it should be explicitly stated, with no 
prejudice or preconceived opinions, though in view of the defective 
reports skepticism concerning certain details or finds was unavoidable. 

Argentina was reached early in May, 1910, and the stay of the 
writer in the country lasted two months and that of Mr. Willis some- 
what longer ; almost all of this time was given to the researches here 
recorded. The Argentine men of science, Srs. Ameghino, Ambrosetti, 
Lehmann-Nitsche, Moreno, Outes, Roth, and others, received Mr. Willis 
and the writer very cordially and facilitated their work with a liberality 
that has left a lasting impression and has placed thenz under many 
obligations. Senor Moreno and Professor Ameghino, with his brother 
Carlos, were particularly helpful; without their aid a large portion of 
the work could not have been accomplished. The specimens which it 



PREFACE VII 

was important to examine, even those the descriptions of which had 
not yet been published, were placed freely at the disposal of the 
writer and his colleague ; Professor Ameghino and his brother accom- 
panied them, notwithstanding the inclement season, for nearly three 
weeks from point to point along the coast where vestiges of ancient 
man or his forerunners were believed to have been discovered; H. 
Santiago Roth visited Alvear with Mr. Willis; and de Carles, at the 
instance of Professor Ameghino, accompanied the party to the distant 
Ovejero. Finally, through the good offices of Senor Moreno, the 
writer received most valuable aid from the provincial authorities of 
Patagonia and from several prominent citizens of the city of Carmen. 
Sincere thanks are due to all of these gentlemen and to many others 
by whom assistance was rendered. 

The first weeks of his stay were given by the writer to the study of 
the available skeletal material attributed to ancient man or his fore- 
runners, in the Museo Nacional, the Facultad de Filosofia y Letras, 
and the Museo de La Plata; while Mr. Willis devoted his time to 
the examination at the same institutions of the many samples of 
baked earth, scoriae, and other objects, believed to exhibit the activi- 
ties of ancient man. Besides this, spare time was utilized by visits to 
places in Buenos Aires which show exposures of the local formation, 
and especially to the docks where the Diprothomo skull had been dis- 
covered, in search of first-hand information concerning this find. 

On May 24 Mr. Willis and the writer set out for the coast, along 
which the more important specimens had been discovered, and a few 
days after, at Mar del Plata, were joined by Professor Ameghino and 
his brother Carlos. Examinations were made of the coast from north 
of Mar del Plata to the Barrancas de los Lobos (see maps, pis. 1, 21 ; 
figs. 1, 2), a section very important from the standpoint of arche- 
ology and geology; of the more inland Laguna de los Padres, the 
neighborhood of which was occupied up to late historic times by a 
small body of Indians; of the coast about and to the northeast of 
Miramar, a region interesting archeologically, geologically, and 
because of finds, slightly farther to the south, of two "fossil "human 
crania; of the Necochea and the Arroyo delMoro parts of the coast, 
highly interesting because of recent finds there of a number of ' 'fossil " 
human skeletons; and finally of the Monte Hermoso barranca, which 
yielded the Tetraprothomo. 

On the completion of the foregoing work, Professor Ameghino and 
his brother returned to Buenos Aires, the writer set out for the valley of 
the Rio Negro, whence came many years ago the "fossil" Patagonian 
crania, while Mr. Willis proceeded to visit certain of the inland hills 
for the purpose of supplementing his geologic observations on the coast, 
thence to the localities of Arroyo Siasgo and Alvear, the former the 
site of a recent find of "fossil" man, and the other a well-known place 



VIII PREFACE 

that has given many examples of baked earth and other apparent 
evidences of man's antiquity. Early in July Mr. Willis and the 
writer returned once more to Buenos Aires, completed as far as possi- 
ble the work of research there, and then started with Sr. de Carles 
for Ovejero, a locality in the northwestern part of Argentina, which in 
the last few years has yielded a relatively large quantity of "fossil" 
human bones. Subsequently this trip was extended, for geologic as 
well as anthropologic purposes, to Tucuman, San Juan, and Mendoza. 
From the last-named place Mr. Willis returned to Buenos Aires, while 
the writer crossed the Andes on his way to Peru. 

The writer left Argentina feeling that the time at his disposal there, 
though utilized to the utmost, was all too brief. The country abounds 
in anthropologic problems and material and large sections as yet 
have not been explored. But the opportunities suggested by these 
considerations belong to the future. The writer and his colleague 
were not able to visit some of the places where remains of presumably 
ancient man were found, because, the discoveries having been made 
many years ago by men no longer among the living, the exact localities 
are not known. There was no time to conduct more extensive 
excavations, and even the examinations of some of the specimens 
could have been made with advantage more detailed. The main 
objects of the journey had been accomplished, however, so that fur- 
ther particulars could not be expected to change or augment mate- 
rially the essentials of the evidence. Whatever doubts remain are 
of such nature that only by justifiable inference and strictly scientific 
field work can it be hoped to effect their final solution. 

Unfortunately the general results of the inquiry here outlined are 
not in harmony with the claims of the various authors who reported 
the several finds. As will be seen by the details, the evidence is, up to 
the present time, unfavorable to the hypothesis of man's great antiq- 
uity, and especially to the existence of man's predecessors in South 
America; and it does not sustain the theories of the evolution of man 
in general, or even of that of the American man alone, in the southern 
continent. The facts gathered attest everywhere merely the presence 
of the already differentiated and relatively modern American Indian. 

A.H. 



CONTENTS 



I. General considerations, by Ales Hrdlicka 1 

II. Enumeration of the South American finds relating to early man, by Ale§ 

Hrdlicka 11 

III. General geologic notes, by Bailey Willis 15 

Introductory note 15 

General geologic description 16 

Warped continental surface 16 

Pampean terrane 18 

Upper Pampean and Post- Pampean 27 

Atlantic coast of the pampas 32 

Summary of geologic relations 38 

Report on shells collected by Ales Hrdlicka and Bailey Willis, in 

Argentina, by Wm. H. Dall 41 

IV. Tierra cocida; scoriae, by Bailey Willis 45 

Notes by Ales Hrdlicka 49 

V. Petrographic study of the specimens of loess, tierra cocida, and scoria 
collected by the Hrdlicka- Willis expedition, by Fred. Eugene Wright 

and Clarence N. Fenner 55 

Introduction 55 

Descriptions of specimens 57 

Specimens from Buenos Aires 57 

Specimens from Alvear 58 

Specimens from the vicinity of Mar del Plata 64 

Specimens from Miramar and vicinity 69 

Specimens from the vicinity of Necochea 80 

Specimens from Monte Hermoso 82 

Specimens from Bio Colorado 84 

Specimen from San Bias 85 

Recapitulation 86 

The loess specimens 86 

Tierra cocida 88 

The scorise 89 

General conclusions and summary 93 

The scorise 94 

Petrographic-microscopic examination of bones collected by Doctor 

Hrdlicka 97 

VI. Peculiar stone industries of the Argentine coast, by Ales Hrdlicka 99 

Historical account 99 

The "split-stone " industry 99 

The "broken-stone " industry 104 

Field observations Ill 

Worked stones of reputed geologic antiquity Ill 

Conclusions 121 

Notes on Playa and Campo Peralta, by Bailey Willis 122 

Notes on Punta Porvenir, by Bailey Willis 123 

IX 



C CONTENTS 

VI. Peculiar stone industries of the Argentine coast — Continued. Pa g e 

Stone implements of the Argentine littoral, by W. H. Holmes 125 

Northern group - - 126 

Use of beach pebbles 126 

Chipped white quartzites 139 

Domestic utensils : 140 

Southern group — Rio Negro District 142 

Ethnic bearing 144 

Chronologic bearing 148 

Earthenware 150 

VII. The skeletal remains of early man in South America, by Ales Hrdlicka. 153 

The Quaternary man : 153 

The Lagoa Santa discoveries (Brazil) 153 

History 154 

Reports on Lund's collections 165 

Critical remarks 179 

The Carcarana bones 184 

Historical notes and previous observations 184 

Critical remarks 192 

The ancient Patagonians 194 

History and observations on the specimens 194 

Critical remarks 196 

The Arroyo de Frias finds 197 

Historical notes and previous observations 197 

Critical remarks 206 

The Saladero skeleton 209 

Historical notes and previous reports -. 209 

Critical remarks 211 

The Fontezuelas skeleton 213 

History and reports 213 

Critical remarks 221 

The Arrecifes skull 225 

Historical remarks and earlier reports 225 

Examination by the writer 230 

The Samborombon skeleton 233 

History and reports '. 233 

Critical remarks 236 

The Chocorf skeleton 237 

History and earlier reports i * 237 

Examination by the writer 239 

Critical remarks 242 

Human remains from Ovejero and neighborhood 242 

Reports and history . 242 

Observations by the writer 245 

The Ovejero skeletal material 247 

Critical remarks on the Ovejero region finds 255 

Notes on the locality of Sotelo, by Bailey Willis 255 

The Tertiary man 258 

The Baradero skeleton 258 

History and reports 258 

Critical remarks 261 

Homo caputinclinatus — the Arroyo Siasgo skeleton 262 

History and earlier reports 262 

Examination by the writer 266 



CONTENTS XI 

VII. The skeletal remains of early man in South America — Continued. 
The Tertiary man — Continued. 

Homo caputinclinatus — the Arroyo Siasgo skeleton — Continued. Page 

Critical remarks 269 

Observations on the Arroyo Siasgo find, by Bailey Willis 269 

Homo sinemento — Arroyo del Moro; Necochea 272 

The Arroyo del Moro find 272 

Observations by the writer 276 

Examination of the skeletal remains 280 

Geologic notes on the Laguna Malacara (Arroyo del Moro) re- 
gion, by Bailey Willis 287 

General conclusions regarding Homo sinemento, by A. H 289 

Homo pampseus 289 

History and reports 289 

( The Miramar (La Tigra) skeleton 290 

History and reports 290 

Observations by the writer 295 

Skeletal remains relating to Homo pampseus, from neighbor- 
hood of Necochea 308 

History and reports 308 

Observations by the writer 311 

Geologic notes on the Necochea region, by Bailey Willis 316 

The Necochea find 316 

Final remarks on Homo pampseus, by A. H 318 

Diprothomo platensis 318 

History and reports 318 

The writer's examination of the specimen 325 

Anthropologic characteristics 326 

Conclusions 332 

Additional reports on Diprothomo 333 

Notes on the Diprothomo find, by Bailey Willis 343 

Concluding remarks on the Diprothomo, by Ales Hrdlicka 345 

Tetraprothomo argenlinus 346 

History and reports 346 

The reported features of the atlas 347 

The reported features of the Monte Hermoso femur 352 

Additional literature 359 

Monte Hermoso: Geologic notes, by Bailey Willis 361 

Examination of the skeletal parts attributed to the Tetraprothomo, 

by Ales Hrdlicka 364 

The Monte Hermoso atlas 364 

The Tetraprothomo femur, from Monte Hermoso 369 

Final remarks on the Monte Hermoso specimens 384 

VIII. General conclusions 385 

IX. List of publications relating to the skeletal remains of early man and his 

precursors in South America 387 

Addenda 393 

Index # 397 



ILLUSTRATIONS 



Page 

Plate 1. Map of central eastern Argentina 16 

2. Barrancas del Norte, Mar del Plata 27 

3. Barrancas del Norte, Mar del Plata 27 

4. Arroyo de Ramallo 30 

5. Banks of the Parana at San Lorenzo 30 

6. Barrancas de los Lobos 33 

7. Scoriae from the Argentine coast 7 71 

8. Scoriae from the Argentine coast 80 

9. Campo Peralta, near Mar del Plata 114 

10. Anvil-stones 117 

11. Campo Peralta, near Mar del Plata 118 

12. Pebble nuclei 137 

13. Arrowheads of jasper and agate 144 

14. Plano-convex knife blades 147 

15. Pottery fragments from vicinity of Puerto San Bias 151 

16. A Lagoa Santa skull. (After Soren Hansen) 183 

17. A Lagoa Santa skull. (After Soren Hansen) 183 

18. Skull of Fontezuelas. (After Soren Hansen) ■ 216 

19. Left femur of Fontezuelas skeleton. (After Lehmann-Nitsche) 221 

20. Tibiae of Fontezuelas skeleton. (After Lehmann-Nitsche) 221 

21. Map of the littoral of Mar del Plata and Chapalmalan. (After 

Ameghino) 237 

22. Human skeleton in situ, near Sotelo 246 

23. Barrancas at Sotelo 257 

24. Arroyo Siasgo skull : 266 

25. Rio Salado 270 

26. Arroyo Siasgo 270 

27. Arroyo Siasgo 271 

28. Arroyo Siasgo 271 

29. Excavation near Laguna Malacara 277 

30. Malacara (or Moro) skull No. 1 280 

31. Malacara (or Moro) skull No. 1 280 

32. Malacara (or Moro) skull No. 1 280 

33. Malacara (or Moro) skull No. 2 284 

34. Malacara (or Moro) skull No. 2 284 

35. Miramar (La Tigra) skull. (After Lehmann-Nitsche) 290 

36. Miramar (La Tigra) skull. (After Lehmann-Nitsche) 290 

37. Fossilized Patagonian skull from vicinity of Viedma, on Rio Negro. . 301 

38. Skull of Homo pampseus and Patagonian skull 301 

39 . Two Patagonian skulls 301 

40. Peruvian and Patagonian skulls 301 

41. Patagonian and Aymara skulls 301 

42. Fragment of skull from vicinity of Necochea 312 

43. Necochea skull No. 5008 312 

XIII 



XIV ILLUSTRATIONS 

Page 

Plate 44. Necochea skull No. 5008 312 

45. Necochea skull No. 5008. (After Mochi) 312 

46. Grave of "fossil " skeleton near the sea at Necochea 317 

47. Excavation for dry dock 321 

48. Finished dry dock 321 

49. The 'original of the Diprothomo skull 326 

50. The original of the Diprothomo skull 326 

51. Sagittal curve of Diprothomo and of male Piegan skull 328 

52. Modern Indian skulls — glabellar region 328 

53. Modern masculine Patagonian skull 328 

54. Skull of Diprothomo — profile 339 

55. Calotte of Diprothomo 342 

56. "Middle Pampean " formation. (According to Poth) 345 

57. Monte Hermoso 362 

58. Monte Hermoso 362 

59. Atlases of Tetraprothomo and adult Indians 364 

60. Atlases of Tetraprothomo, Indians, and apes 365 

61. Atlases of Tetraprothomo, Indians, and apes 366 

62. Atlases of Tetraprothomo and Indians 368 

63. Atlases of Tetraprothomo, Indians, and apes 368 

64. Monte Hermoso femur : 369 

65. Femora of Tetraprothomo and lower animals 374 

66. Femora of Tetraprothomo, apes, and man 374 

67 . Femora of Tetraprothomo, apes, and man 374 

68. Femora of Tetraprothomo, apes, and man 374 

Figure 1 . Map of the Province of Buenos Aires 17 

2. Map of the Argentine coast from Mar del Plata to the Barrancas de 

los Lobos 116 

3. Anvil of limestone (Mar del Plata) 127 

4. Anvil-stone of quartzite (Punta Mogote) 127 

5. Bowlder hammer of felsite, with battered ends (Miramar) 128 

6. Hammer of felsite, with battered ends and pitted sides (Necochea) . . 128 

7. Hammer of quartzite, with pitted faces and battered end and sides 

(Campo Peralta) 128 

8. Hammer of quartzite, with deeply scarred and pitted faces (Mar del 

Plata) 128 

9. Discoidal pitted hammer of quartzite, with beveled periphery 129 

10. Hammer made of a felsite bowlder, with pitted sides (Necochea). . 129 

11. Chipped quartzite hammer, with battered periphery (Mar del Plata).. 129 

12. Small hammer of greenish felsite (Necochea) 129 

13. Roughly grooved hammer of quartzite (Campo Peralta) 129 

14. Neatly shaped grooved hammer of sandstone (Punta Mogote) 130 

15. Quartzite pebbles chipped at both ends, having a shuttle-like out- 

line (Campo Peralta) 130 

16. Small jasper pebbles, one chipped at both ends and the other at 

one end only (Campo Peralta) 130 

17. Pebbles chipped into subrectangular forms: Jasper (Campo Peralta); 

felsite (Miramar) 130 

18. Jasper pebbles chipped irregularly from the side (Campo Peralta 

and Necochea) 131 

19. Flakes from black jasper pebbles specialized for use as knives or 

scrapers (Necochea) 131 

20. The several forms of flakes 132 



ILLUSTRATIONS XV 

Page 
Figure 21 . The principal percussive methods of stone flaking 134 

22. Adventitious origin of the crescentic edge and the gouge shape of 

the pebble nucleus 135 

23. Examples of flaked pebbles from Argentina and District of 

Columbia 136 

24. Chipped implements of black jasper (Arroyo Corrientes and 

Necochea) - 137 

25. Spikelike forms of black jasper pebble derivation, possibly rejects 

from arrow making (Miramar and Necochea) 137 

26. Scrapers of jasper (Necochea and Monte Hermoso) 137 

27. Nucleus of quartzite from which flakes have been removed 

(Campo Peralta) 139 

28. Arrow points of quartzite (Campo Peralta) 139 

29. Quartzite scrapers of duck-bill type (Campo Peralta and Neco- 

chea) 139 

30. Hafted Tehuelche scraper of duck-bill type, made of green bottle 

glass (Hatcher collection, southern Patagonia) 140 

31. Plano-convex blades of white quartzite, showing the carefully 

chipped convex faces and the profiles (Campo Peralta) 141 

32. Narrow high-backed blade of quartzite (Laguna Malacara) and 

spikelike form of quartzite (Playa Peralta) 141 

33. Quartzite muller-pestle of exceptional size and shape (Campo 

Peralta) 142 

34. Pestle of gritty sandstone (Mar del Plata) 142 

35. Mortars of sandstone (San Bias District and Viedma) 143 

36. Mullers: Granite, well-polished (Viedma); sandstone (San Bias 

District) 143 

37. Pestles: Quartzite pestle of cigar shape (San Bias District); sand- 

stone pestle, fragment (San Bias District) 144 

38. Axlike blade of sandstone, bearing engraved design (Puerto San 

Bias) 144 

39. Hammer-anvil of quartzite, used secondarily as a muller (Viedma) . 145 

40. Leaf-shaped blades of brown jasper, probably rejects of manufacture 

(San Bias) 145 

41. Series of jasper leaf forms representing successive steps in the spe- 

cialization of arrow points (San Bias) 146 

42. Drill-point of jasper (San Bias) 146 

43. Teeth from the Carcarana skull. (After Gervais) 186 

44. Transverse section of the stream Frias, demonstrating the geological 

constitution of the strata at the point where the fossil man of 
Mercedes was found, together with a plan of the excavation made 
in exhuming the remains 199 

45. Skull of Arrecifes, norma lateralis. (After Lehmann-Nitsche) 227 

46. Skull of Chocori, norma lateralis. (After Lehmann-Nitsche) 240 

47. Ovejero skull No. 2 (side view) 248 

48. Tibia of Baradero: Transverse section of the shaft. 261 

49. Lower jaw of modern man, showing only a slight chin prominence; 

unidentified, but either white or Indian.. 285 

50. Norma lateralis of Diproihomo fragment and Ameghino's "comple- 

tion" of such fragment, compared with norma lateralis of Alsa- 
tian skull. (After Schwalbe.) 339 

51. The Monte Hermoso femur 370 



EARLY MAN IN SOUTH AMERICA 



By Ales Hrdlicka. 

In collaboration with 
W. H. Holmes, Bailey Willis, Fred. Eugene Wright, and Clarence N. Fenner 



I. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 



By Ales Hrdlicka 



In dealing on a large scale with a subject of so great importance as 
man's antiquity, it seems appropriate to consider briefly at least, 
before taking up the details of research, the essential conditions on 
which judgments regarding the various problems involved must 
depend. These conditions, or criteria, are of prime consequence, yet 
are often so simple as to be self-evident. But notwithstanding this, 
they are not infrequently lost sight of by the very students who need 
most to keep them clearly in view. 

The antiquity of any human remains, skeletal or cultural, antedat- 
ing the historic period, can be judged of only from the association of 
such remains with geologic deposits the age of which is well-deter- 
mined, and with the remains of other organic forms, the place of 
which in time and in the evolutionary series is known. In the case of 
osseous specimens great weight attaches also to the morphologic 
characteristics and to the organic and inorganic alterations of the 
bones. 

From the geologic standpoint, consideration of the antiquity of 
human remains involves not merely unquestionable stratigraphic 
identification, but, preeminently, the question, unnecessary in general 
in dealing with bones of animals, of possible introduction subsequent 
to the formation of the matrix which enclosed them. 

On the morphologic side, in turn, we encounter the important and 
often very difficult task of distinguishing between characteristics nor- 
mal to a definite stage of evolution and those due to reversion or other 
causes affecting only individuals. And in regard to the post-mortem 
21535°— Bull. 52—12 1 



2 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

alterations in the bones, great difficulties are encountered in the way of 
a precise physical and chemical determination of the changes that 
exist, and especially in the evaluation of their chronologic significance. 

In general, to establish beyond doubt the geologic antiquity of 
human remains, it should be shown conclusively that the specimen or 
specimens were found in geologically ancient deposits, whose age is 
confirmed by the presence of paleontologic remains; and the bones 
should present evidence of organic as well as inorganic alterations, 
and show also morphologic characteristics referable to an earlier type. 
In addition, it is necessary to prove in every case by unexceptional 
evidence that the human remains were not introduced, either pur- 
posely or accidentally, in later times into the formation in which 
discovered. 

It will be plain to every critical reader that the age of a find relating 
to early man in which the above-mentioned requirements have not 
been satisfied can not be regarded as definitely settled. To accept 
any specimen as representative of man of a definite geologic period on 
evidence less than the sum total of these criteria would be to build 
with radical defects in the foundation. It will be far more profitable 
to anthropology to wait for discoveries that will fulfill the conditions 
named than to accept cases, howsoever satisfactory they may seem to 
some, that leave in the mind of the unprejudiced and experienced 
observer serious doubt as to the true age of the remains. 

Two of the above-named requisites, namely, the morphologic evi- 
dence of the bones and their post-burial alterations, call for further 
consideration. 

On the basis of what is positively known to-day in regard to early 
man, and with the present scientific views regarding man's evolution, 
the anthropologist has a right to expect that human bones, particu- 
larly crania, exceeding a few thousand years in age, and more espe- 
cially those of geologic antiquity, shall present marked morphologic 
differences, and that these differences shall point in the direction of 
more primitive forms. 

Man can not have arisen except from some more theroid form 
zoologically, and hence also morphologically. No conclusion can be 
more firmly founded than that man is a product of an extraordinary 
progressive differentiation from some anthropogenic stock, which 
developed somewhere in the later Tertiary, among the primates. He 
began, then, as an organism that in brain and in body was less than 
man, that was anthropoid. From this stage he could not have 
become at once as he is to-day, though in some stages of his evolution 
he may have -advanced by leaps, or at least more rapidly than in 
others. He must have developed successively morphologic modifi- 
cations called for by his advance toward the present man, and have 



hrdliCka] GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 3 

lost gradually those features that interfered with his advance or 
became useless — progress which is still unfinished. We know these 
to be the facts, (1) because all organic form is essentially unstable, 
plastic, reactive to changing influences, and to this law man's com- 
plex and relatively deiicate organism can form no exception; (2) 
because the best-authenticated skeletal remains of early man show 
without exception a more cr less close approximation to more primi- 
tive primate forms; (3) because these older human forms show, in 
general, more theroid features in proportion to their geologic antiq- 
uity; and (4) because morphologic differences have occurred in 
numerous historic groups of mankind within relatively recent times, 
are very apparent to-day in the various "races" of man, and are 
constantly arising in tribes, in lesser groups, in families, and in 
individuals. 

Evolutionary changes have not progressed and do not progress 
regularly in mankind as a whole, nor even in any of its divisions. 
Such changes may be thought of as a slowly-augmenting complex of 
zigzags, with localized forward leaps, temporary haltings, retrogres- 
sions, and possibly with even occasional complete cessations. Thus 
it would not be reasonable to expect that at any given date in the 
past or present all the branches or members of the human or proto- 
human family would be of absolutely uniform type. At all periods 
some individuals, and even groups, were doubtless more advanced 
than others from the ancestral and nearer the present human type. 
Nevertheless, the morphologic status of man in each geologic period 
had, unquestionably, its boundaries, and there is no evidence or 
probability that two human beings, a geologic period or more apart, 
could be so closely related in form that their crania or skeletons 
would show strictly one and the same type. 

The antiquity, therefore, of any human skeletal remains which do 
not present marked differences from those of modern man may be 
regarded, on morphologic grounds, as o^ly insignificant geologically, 
not reaching in time, in all probability, beyond the modern, still 
unfinished, geologic formations. Should other claims be made in any 
case, the burden of definite proof would rest heavily on those advanc- 
ing them. 

Other considerations bearing on this point have been brought forth 
in the writer's report relating to ancient man in North America, 1 
which should be read in connection with the present work. The 
essence of the subject is that the expectation of important form dif- 
ferences between all human skeletal remains of geologic antiquity and 
those of the present era is justified; that the differences presented by 

1 Bulletin 33 of the Bureau of American Ethnology. 



4 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

the older remains should point in the direction of zoologic inferi- 
ority; and that where important structural differences pointing to 
an earlier evolutionary stage are not found in the human skeletal 
remains which are the subject of study, and especially where the 
given crania and bones show close analogies with those of a modern 
or even of the actual native race of the same region, the geologic 
antiquity of such remains may well be regarded as imperfectly sup- 
ported, in fact, as improbable. 

As to the evidence that anatomic changes in man or, more precisely, 
in his skeleton, have taken place during the present epoch, particu- 
larly during historic times, the following points deserve attention : 

The earliest skeletal forms approximating closely to those of pres- 
ent man occur in Europe in the latter part of the paleolithic epoch, 
assigned to the Upper Quaternary. They belong to the so-called 
Aurignacean and Solutrean cultural periods. Yet even here, as 
shown especially by the very important Maska collection, 1 there are 
numerous and important characters distinguishing the skulls as well 
as other bones from those of the whites and even from those of the 
more primitive races of to-day. It is only when the Cro-Magnon and 
the latest Grimaldi skeletal remains are reached, both regarded as of 
the latest " diluvial" age and possibly more recent, that we find forms 
corresponding closely to historic man. 

Numerous changes, however, have taken place in various groups 
of mankind ever since the time of the Man of Cro-Magnon or of Gri- 
maldi. These have been more pronounced in some regions than in 
others but there are no examples of complete morphologic standstill. 
The inhabitants of Egypt have been repeatedly pointed to as an exam- 
ple of the stability of human characters. Their skeletal remains are 
now known for a period extending over 5,000 years. The Egyptians 
sprang apparently from a single physical type and while there were 
subsequent accessions to the population, they were in general of peo- 
ple of the same type. Afte^eaching the valley of the Nile this group 
of humanity continued to live relatively isolated and under much 
the same environment. For thousands of years they had in general 
the same occupations, the same diet, the same habits and customs, 
and changed but slightly in the grade of their civilization. Here 
were almost ideal conditions for maintaining stability of physical 
type, and there is no doubt that a closer approximation to such sta- 
bility has been realized than in other known regions of the world. 
Yet, as the writer, who made a journey to Egypt largely for the pur- 
pose of investigating this subject, has shown already in a preliminary 

1 Maska's collection from Pfedmost, Moravia, as yet unpublished but being studied, embraces more 
than a dozen skeletons of man, contemporaneous with the mammoth, in a relatively excellent state of pres- 
ervation, from the Solutrean. 



hbdliCka] GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 5 

writing, 1 and as was shown lately by G. Elliot Smith and Derry also, 2 
the susceptibility of the organism to modification, even under these 
exceptionally uniform environmental conditions, has not been over- 
come, and numerous changes in the Egyptian skeleton between the 
predynastic and middle dynastic, and again between that and the 
Coptic period, excluding from consideration the influence of negro 
infusion, are perceptible. In other countries such changes have been 
more pronounced. In Russia, Bohemia, Germany, France, England, 
cranial alterations have taken place within the last 2,000 years, all of 
winch can hardly be explained by migration or admixture. In the 
American Indian many territorially localized morphologic modifica- 
tions have become manifest within relatively recent times, for almost 
every tribe to-day possesses some distinguishing marks of body as 
well as of skeleton; and further modifications are certainly now tak- 
ing place in the Indian with changing conditions. 

All these facts bear evidence strongly against the persistence of 
the same type of man in any region from the Pleistocene or an 
even older period to the present. The fundamental causes of this 
incomplete stability are, on the one hand, the nature of the human 
organism, which like every other organism is in its ultimate analysis 
a chemical complex, living by chemical change and subject to physi- 
cal and chemical influences, and on the other the variability of these 
influences. So long as the chemical status of the organism, especially 
that of the developing organism and of the perpetuating or genera- 
tive elements of the species, is not in absolute and lasting harmony 
with the environment, so long, it is safe to say, will absolute fixed- 
ness of structure and form be impossible. This expresses the case in 
its extremes without considering its complexity, and applies to the 
ultimate components and coordinations of the organism, but the 
principle, which reduced to the simplest terms is that of action and 
reaction between the protoplasm and the environment, holds good for 
all variations in the human body. The bearing of these considera- 
tions in connection with the theme in hand will be more clearly 
apparent as the several special parts of this report are presented. 

The second important subject which calls for brief discussion in this 
place is that of the alterations of bones after burial. Such alterations 
are partly organic, partly mechanical, and partly chemical, and may 
be classed as follows: 

(1) General decay and disintegration; (2) loss of organic substance 
through bacterial or mineral agencies; (3) partial mechanical loss of 
organic and chemical elements, through erosion; (4) covering by 

1 Note sur la variation morphologique des Egyptiens depuis les temps prehistoriques ou predynastics; in 
Bull, et Mem. Soc. d'Anthr. Paris, 5me seY., x, 1909, pp. 143-4. 

2 Smith, G. Elliot, and F. Wood Jones, The Archeological Survey of Nubia, 4°, 2 vol., Cairo, 1910. Also 
Smith, G. Elliot, and D. E. Derry, Bulletin 6 of the same Survey, Cairo, 1910, and G. Elliot Smith, The 
People of Egypt, in The Cairo Sci. Jour., No. 30, m, Alexandria, 1909. 



6 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

mineral substances that adhere ; (5) simple mechanical or sedimental 
filling of the bone cavities by mineral substances; and (6) lithifica- 
tion, i. e., conversion, more or less complete, of the bone into stone 
or ore through both infiltration and the replacement by other ele- 
ments or compounds of the original inorganic constituents of the 
osseous structure. 

These classes of alterations are but rarely met with isolated or 
perfect, existing more frequently in various combinations and in 
various stages of incompleteness. Occasionally also one process 
may have superseded another, a condition especially apt to appear 
when the location of the specimen happens to be changed, or when 
the bone is acted on by water differing in mineral composition from 
that with which it came previously in contact. 

The nature of the alterations depends altogether on the minerals, 
particularly those in solution, and perhaps also on the gases which 
come in contact with the skeletal remains, 1 the bones themselves, 
though differing to some extent chemically as well as physically, being 
on the whole fairly constant in composition. The conditions to 
which any particular bone is subject may be favorable or unfavor- 
able to its alteration. The unfavorable conditions are those that bring 
about a rapid destruction of the bone, or a dearth or absence of such 
agencies as are capable of producing changes in the bone that make 
for durability; the favorable ones are the presence of modifying 
agencies, while destructive potencies are slow. Bones in dry sand or 
in a dry crypt, or in peat, where bacteria and fungi can not exist and 
where neither corrosive liquids nor gases occur, can undergo but 
little alteration; but if exposed for a time to air, sand blast, growing 
roots, or to water or gases of corrosive qualities, they will show 
scaling, erosion, or other forms of loss of substance ; in acid soil or in 
a wet, warm, aerated mold they will disappear; in a limestone 
cave through which water percolates they will be covered with 
stalagmite, or cemented with earth, stones, shells, etc., and lose 
rapidly their organic matter; in a shell-heap or in calcareous ground, 
or where washed by mineral water or reached by underground water 
carrying minerals in solution, they will be partially infiltrated with 
lime and may be lined with and covered by a deposit, their inorganic 
constitution may be more or less changed and in some cases they 
will become thoroughly petrified. The rapidity of the various proc- 
esses is proportionate to the nature, quantity, and facility of access to 
the bone of the various reagents. 

It follows from what has been shown that alterations of any nature 
in a bone are first of all indications of the conditions under which the 
bone has existed or, briefly, of the environment of the specimen, and 

1 See data adduced by Gratacap, L. P., Fossils and Fossilization; in The American Naturalist, xxx, 
Phila., 1896, 902 et sea..; xxxi, Phila., 1897, 16 et seq. 



hrdliCka] GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 7 

only secondarily and in a very uncertain manner of the time required 
for the consummation of the changes. 

Alterations produced in different bones are often seen to be alike, 
even though the specimens come from different localities and sometimes 
from apparently different investing conditions. This is explainable 
only on the assumption that the real conditions in the different places 
were similar. As the whole process of post-mortem change in bone 
is largely of the nature of chemical reactions, it will always lead, with 
the same elements, to much the same result. But such similarity of 
modification is no index of the quantity of the available reagents, of 
the facility of their action, or of the period during which they acted 
in the various cases and places, and hence alone is no measure of 
time. Two bones that show a like degree of "fossilization" are 
therefore not necessarily contemporaneous or even nearly so. This 
applies even to bones from the same locality, for some may have been 
subjected, through differences in depth or localized variation in soil 
or amount of moisture, to considerably different influences. For the 
same reason even the two extremities of the same bone may present 
differences in color, weight, and in other qualities. 

Another important point is that each locality, each kind of soil, 
must necessarily have a limit to its possible effect on a bone, or at 
least there must be a point beyond which further alterations in the 
bone, unless new conditions set in, are extremely slow. Such limit 
reached, the bone may continue in the same place for ages as an inert, 
neutral object, and resemble closely other bones from the same cave, 
layer, or deposit, introduced at a much later time, but which likewise 
may have reached the limit or nearly the limit of their possible altera- 
tions under the local conditions. 

The above facts demonstrate the futility of utilizing alterations in 
bones as a chronologic index. Yet it is this very unreliable factor of 
"fossilization" of human bones that is principally responsible for the 
"peopling" of North America, and especially of South America, with 
"fossil" ancient human forms. 

The foregoing considerations make it clear that while geologically 
ancient bones may be confidently expected to show more or less 
decided alterations of both organic and inorganic nature, 1 such 
alterations alone can never become a criterion of antiquity. 

In conclusion, it is necessary to refer to a certain class of other 
phenomena observed occasionally in connection with human and 
especially with animal bones, and sometimes brought forward as 
proofs of man's antiquity. This applies to the split or splintered 
bones and to those that show various scratches, striae, cuts, or perfo- 
rations, which appear to be due possibly to human agency. 

1 In very rare instances remains of some of the most recent but now extinct animals have been found 
apparently but little altered, but the date of death in these few cases has never been accurately determined. 



8 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

It is seen in prehistoric European stations that in order to extract the 
marrow ancient man often broke the long bones of animals killed, but 
it does not follow that all similar fragments of bones have a like origin. 
The bones of dead animals, especially those of large size, often lie 
exposed for a considerable length of time on the surface of the ground. 
Animals die at pools where they become mired, or in localities where 
other animals pass, as can be seen in numberless cases on the prairies, 
deserts, pampas, and elsewhere. Their bones may be split longi- 
tudinally by the action of the elements, and are apt to be broken in 
every possible way by the feet of animals, by falling or rolling stones, 
or by pressure within the earth, and the fragments may differ in no 
way from those produced by man breaking long bones to extract the 
marrow. So far as the writer has been able to learn and so far as he 
can conceive, there is no safe means of distinguishing between the 
fracture effect of a blow by man on bone recent or ancient and that 
of a stroke on such bone by the hoof of an animal or by impact of 
falling stones or earth, fragmentation by the teeth of large carnivores, 
or, in the case of buried skeletal remains, crushing by the weight and 
movements of the earth. With all this in view, it is difficult to see 
how fragments of bones of any kind can of themselves ever mate- 
rially assist in establishing the fact of man's agency, and especially of 
his presence at the time when the animal whose bones are found 
split or broken, lived and died. 

Again, the fact is often overlooked that along with fragmentary 
long bones offered as evidence of man's agency are found fragments 
of other bones, without medulla and hence without the marrow for 
which bones are broken. 

As to scratched, striated, incised, or perforated bones, it is suffi- 
cient to call attention to the fact that a sharp edge or point driven by 
force of any kind may produce simple effects similar to those due to 
an implement wielded by the human hand. Only in cases in which 
there is clear evidence of design may human agency be established. 
Mere possibilities or probabilities can not be accepted as positive 
evidence in dealing with the important problem of man's antiquity. 

Many scratches found on bones are doubtless accidental, produced 
during the excavation, handling, or transportation of the specimens. 
As to the striae and incised markings, in order to be accepted as 
due to human agency, it should be shown conclusively that they can 
not be attributed to other causes, as, for example, to the teeth of 
some rodent or carnivore, which sometimes cut as clearly and deeply 
as would a knife. It is often difficult and frequently impossible to 
distinguish cuts due to human agency from those due to animal 
agency. In some cases, however, we may detect the animal agency 
of the cuts by their lack of purpose (from the human point of view), 
by their parallel arrangement or similarity of direction (usually 



hkdliCka] GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 9 

transverse to the axis of the shaft), by their presence on the ends or 
edges of the specimen, and by their close similarity in character. 

As to perforations and grooves found in bones, it may be said 
that many of the most neatly made are due to insects or worms. 
Numerous examples of this kind due to worms were seen by the 
writer in the latter part of 1910, during excavations on the 
Isthmus of Panama. Roots also may produce perforations, especially 
by enlarging nutrient canals, which are liable to be mistaken for 
marks of artificial origin. 

It is plain from the preceding remarks that, unless the opening in 
a bone presents evidence of design or other characteristic such as 
makes its human origin plainly manifest, it can not be accepted as 
artificial and is worthless as evidence of man's agency. 

Moreover, even in cases in which perforation in or markings on 
bones are readily recognized as of human origin, it does not follow 
that man lived contemporaneously with the animals to which the 
bones belonged. To be of value as evidence on this point, it must 
be shown that man worked the bone during the life of the particular 
species and not later. 

As to the bones of fossil animals which show the effects of fire, it 
needs only to be remarked that in order that such specimens should 
become available in any case as evidence of man's antiquity, it 
would be necessary to prove that the fire was due to the agency of 
man, and that the man was contemporaneous with those animals. 

These various considerations, even though stated very briefly, 
indicate the complexity of the subject of evidence relating to the skel- 
etal remains of man or those suggesting man. They show the neces- 
sity of taking into account every circumstantial detail regarding each 
distinct discovery of human skeletal parts and the necessity of 
scientific accuracy in weighing the observed conditions. It might 
seem that all the precautions above outlined should necessarily 
characterize any scientific procedure in this field, but it will be seen 
in the perusal of the following pages of this paper how readily some 
of these principles are slighted and even wholly neglected. 



II. ENUMERATION OF THE SOUTH AMERICAN FINDS 
RELATING TO EARLY MAN 



By Ales Hrdlicka 



The discoveries, so far as published, of industrial and skeletal 
remains suggesting man's antiquity in South America, are restricted 
to Brazil and Argentina. 

Brazil presents only one group of finds of this class, namely, those 
of the Lagoa Santa caves, in the Province of Minas Geraes. They 
consist of a relatively large series of skeletal remains of man and a 
single stone implement, which collectively have been considered as 
probably belonging to Quaternary times. 

In Argentina, on the other hand, discoveries of relics attributed 
to ancient man and even to man's precursors, have been very numer- 
ous. These began with some debris of "fossil" human bones from 
the Rio Carcarafia, in the northern part of the Province of Buenos 
Aires, and with two "fossil" human crania reported from the valley 
of the Rio Negro, northern Patagonia. Subsequent finds, numbering 
in all several thousand specimens and including both human bones 
and what are assumed to be traces of human activity, with the 
exception of those from Patagonia and of the so-called Ovejero re- 
mains, have all been obtained from the Province of Buenos Aires. 

The determinations of the geologic age of the numerous Argentine 
finds by the local authors who have reported on them are considerably 
at variance. There are in the main, however, two groups of opin- 
ions, one represented by Florentino Ameghino, the other by Santiago 
Roth and R. Lehmann-Nitsche. Below is given the classification of 
these finds by Ameghino, according to the geologic age assigned them 
by this author; the classifications of the other observers are more 
restricted in the number of finds regarded as ancient, and offer in 
general more moderate estimates of the ages of the specimens. 

11 



12 



BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 



[BULL. 52 



Skeletal remains of, and other indications pointing to, early man in South America, and 
their geologic age, according to F. Ameghino 1 



Period 


Epochs and stages 


Remains extant 




Recent 






Platean. Querandine transgression 




Quaternary 


Post-Lujanean hiatus 


Homo sapiens 




Lujanean and corresponding marine 
transgression 


Skulls of Arrecifes and Ovejero 




Post-Bonaerean hiatus 






Bonaerean{-S r 


Fontezuelas, Arroyo de Frias, 
Samboromb6n, Baradero, 
Chocori skulls and skeletons 


Homo caputin- 
clinatus skele- 




Belgranean transgression 


Industrial vestiges 


ton (Siasgo) 
Homo sinemento 




Post-Ensenadean hiatus 




(Moro) 


Pliocene 


Cuspidal Ensenadean 


Homo pampxus, or Prothomo: Miramar (La 
Tigra), Necochea skeletal remains 




Inter-Ensenadean transgression 


Stone industry 




Basal Ensenadean 


Industrial vestiges 




Pre-Ensenadean 


Diprothomo platensis skull 




Post-Puelchean hiatus 






Puelchean and corresponding trans- 
gression 


Industrial vestiges 


Superior Miocene 


Post-Chapalmalean hiatus 






Chapalmalean 2 


Industrial vestiges 




Post-Hermosean hiatus 






Hermosean 


Tetraprothomo argentinus, atlas and femur 


Lower Miocene 




Industrial vestiges (?) 


Oligocene 




Industrial vestiges 


Upper Eocene 


Patagonian 


Industrial vestiges of man's precursors 



1 Based on the table .published by that author in his Le Diprothomo Platensis, in Anales del Museo 
National de Buenos Aires, xix (ser. iii, t. xn), 1909, p. 124, and supplemented by more recently announced 
discoveries. 

2 Written also Chapadmalean. 

The " industrial vestiges" can receive in this report, with two im- 
portant exceptions, only general consideration. They consist of four 



hkdliCka] 



FINDS RELATING TO EARLY MAN 



13 



main groups, namely: (1) Baked earth, or tierra cocida; (2) scoriae; 
(3) used or worked stones; and (4) used or worked bones. 

On the basis of these and the above-enumerated human specimens, 
coupled with the presence in South America of certain small fossil 
monkeys, Ameghino advanced the theory that mankind evolved on 
that continent, that it was represented there in the course of time 
by a number of genera of intermediary beings and by several species 
of man himself, and that he spread thence over the rest of the world. 
This elaborate theory can be given in this report only brief space; 
for the many details which it involves it will be necessary to consult 
Ameghino's original publications (see Bibliography). The following 
table, from Ameghino's Le Diprothomo Platensis (1909, p. 206), shows 
the views of that author as to the sequence of the evolution, though 
later his conceptions on that subject were probably even further 
developed. 



AMEGHINO'S SCHEME OF MAN'S EVOLUTION 
HominidEe 



Homo 
sapiens 



Homo 
primigenius 



Homo sapiens 



Homo pampseus 



Homo 
ater 



Pithecan- 
thropus 



Anthropo- 
Pseudhomo morphidse 
heidelbergensis 




Homun- 
culidae 



Anthropops 
Homunculus 
. Pitheculites 



Clenialites 



14 BTJBEAU OF AMERICAN" ETHNOLOGY [boll. 52 

Having thus indicated in brief the status of the subject of remains 
relating to early man in South America at the time of the visit of the 
writer and Mr. Willis to Argentina, it is now appropriate to present 
the results of their observations. In general these lead, as already 
indicated, to conclusions different from those of the several Argentine 
authors, especially Ameghino, who have studied the anthropologic 
character, and have estimated the ages, of the various specimens. 



III. GENERAL GEOLOGIC NOTES 



By Bailey Willis 



Introductory Note 

The following geologic description is restricted to the writer's 
observations and to deductions from them. During four months, 
May to August, 1910, which he spent in Argentina, he visited the 
vicinity of Buenos Aires, the right bank of the Parana as far north 
as Rosario, the eastern part of the Province of Buenos Aires and the 
coast from Mar del Plata to Bahia Blanca, and the Sierra de la 
Ventana; all with reference to studies of the Pampean and post- 
Pampean terranes. Outside of this region his journeys extended to 
Tucuman on the north, to San Juan and Mendoza on the west, to 
Neuquen on the southwest, and to the Rio Colorado, including its 
delta, on the south. (See maps: Pis. 1 and 21; figs. 1 and 2.) 

The writer is under great obligations to Dr. Florentino Ameghino 
and also to Prof. Santiago Roth, who not only gave valuable time 
to accompany his colleague, Doctor Hrdlicka, and himself, but also 
most generously and frankly discussed the geologic phenomena. 
Their intimate knowledge and great experience entitle their views 
to the most serious consideration. The writer is happy to know 
that in many respects his inferences from observed facts agree with 
theirs, especially as to the Miocene and Pliocene age of much of the 
Pampean terrane. 

He regrets that certain geologic relations, when interpreted in the 
light of his experience in other lands, lead him to conclusions that 
differ from theirs. There are some points on which they do not agree 
between themselves, notably as to the classification of the divisions of 
the Pampean. This problem is one that requires further investigation, 
both stratigraphically and paleontologically. The superficial forma- 
tions of the pampas and of the coast are interpreted by the writer 
as of very recent origin. It is in them that human remains have 
been found. Were the remains as old as the deposits they would 
be geologically recent, but they are even younger, since the evidence 
of occurrence and character in every case that the writers could 
examine showed that the bodies had been buried in or had accidentally 
reached the positions in which they were found. 

15 



16 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [boll. 52 

The writer leaves to his colleague, Doctor Hrdlicka, all discussion 
of the anthropologic facts; but the physical evidence leads to con- 
clusions identical with those indicated by anthropology and leaves 
no legitimate doubt that geologically ancient man has not yet been 
found in Argentina. 

General Geologic Description 

warped continental surface 

The area which it is necessary to discuss in connection with the 
problem of the antiquity of man in Argentina comprises the Province 
of Buenos Aires (pi. 1 and fig. 1) and portions of the provinces and 
territories adjacent to it on the northwest and southwest. This region 
is an ancient land surface, many geologic ages having passed since it 
was submerged beneath the sea. Its mass consists of very old rocks 
that may be described as quartzites and dolomites, and of still older 
granite and schists. The marine sediments of comparatively recent 
geologic date (Mesozoic and Tertiary) that make up a large part of 
the Andes are not found in the area, which was an island when the 
ocean flowed over the site of the Cordillera. 

It is a geologic axiom that any old land is surely worn down by 
erosion to a plain, unless it is disturbed by the internal forces of the 
earth in such a manner as to renew the old mountain ranges or to 
produce new ones. This land of Buenos Aires was thus planed. 
The plain may be recognized where the ancient rocks are not covered 
by superficial deposits and it extends no doubt beneath the entire 
area of the pampas. But that plain, which was once level, is no 
longer so. Reference is not here made to the plain of the pampas, 
across which the railroads are graded, but to the eroded surface of 
the crystalline rocks that lies beneath the superficial deposits of the 
pampas. At Buenos Aires it is buried to a depth of more than 300 
meters. Beneath the Rio de la Plata it probably lies still lower. 
In the mountains of C6rdoba, in the Sierra Tandil, and in the Sierra 
de la Ventana that old plain is raised to an altitude of several hun- 
dred meters. Thus, that which was formerly nearly level is now 
depressed or elevated according to the part of the region considered, 
and we may truly say that the surface of the old land is warped. 

The warping involved changes of altitude. Some areas now stand 
higher than they did; others lie lower; but the process of erosion 
tends to restore a flat surface by removing the elevations and filling 
the hollows. In the sculptured forms of the upraised plains or 
mountains we vasiy read the history of the uplift. On the other 
hand, the depressed areas become valleys of great rivers or embay- 
ments of the sea and, being more or less filled with sediment, contain 
the record of subsidence in the strata of the deposit. 






BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 



BULLETIN 52 PLATE 1 




MAP OF CENTRAL EASTERN ARGENTINA 

Showing on a large scale the parts of Argentina in which human remains of supposed geologic an- 
tiquity have been discovered. 



WILLIS] 



GENERAL GEOLOGIC NOTES 



17 



In warping, the old land of Buenos Aires on the whole was depressed 
during a long period. It has recently been raised again, though not 
to its former general altitude. There were, or are, two regions of 
greatest depression, one of which is the embayment of the Rio de la 
Plata, the other the bay of Bahia Blanca; each of these extends far 




Fig. 1. Map of the Province of Buenos Aires. 

inland. The intervening area did not sink so deep and within it lie 
the exceptional zones that were raised and became the Sierras of 
Cordoba, Tandil, and de la Ventana. 

Over the sinking region superficial deposits of mud were spread, 
partly by rivers and partly by winds, and these constitute the 
21535°— Bull. 52—12 2 



18 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

Pampean formation or terrane. They are no doubt thickest where 
the old rock floor lies deepest — in the downwarps of the Rio de la 
Plata and at Bahia Blanca. 

These two facts — that there is a continental surface which was 
eroded on the ancient crystalline rocks, and that the surface, being 
warped, became generally covered with the Pampean formation — 
are the fundamental facts of the later geologic history of the pampas. 
To these we may add the note that the region is now elevated and 
subject to erosion. 

PAMPEAN TERRANE 

That portion of the geologic history which concerns the discussion 
of the antiquity of man relates to the Pampean terrane. Whence 
were the materials derived ? How were they deposited ? What dis- 
tinct episodes of the long process may be recognized? To what 
epochs of geologic time do these episodes correspond ? In what con- 
nection do they stand with man? 

It has been said that the Pampean was deposited most abundantly 
in the deep downwarps which are now the embayments of the Rio 
de la Plata and the Bahia Blanca. In each of these there developed 
a system of rivers, whose modern representatives are the Parana and 
Uruguay in the one embayment, in the other the Rio Colorado and 
and its long northern tributary, the Gran Salado (Rio Curaco of 
some maps) . These rivers, or their predecessors, brought, distributed, 
and laid down the muds which were gathered in the process of denuda- 
tion of upper watersheds and which consisted of the characteristic 
soils of the several headwater regions. In the one case that was 
central and western South America. The soils were heavy clays, 
containing much iron and of various shades of brown to deep 
brownish-red. Much of the Pampean terrane that lies north of 
the Sierra de la Ventana, was derived from that region and has that 
general character. The Colorado River system, or its ancestors, on 
the other hand, flowed from the Ancles and brought down sands 
in large volume, as well as clays, producing light-colored, sandy 
varieties of the Pampean terrane, which are sometimes so unlike 
the brown clays that they are not called Pampean, but are de- 
scribed as Tertiary sandstones. Within the area of the Province 
of Buenos Aires there rose, moreover, the heights of the Sierra Tandil 
and de la Ventana, which were eroded by rains and by winds, and 
which contributed more or less sand, together with clays, to the 
deposits laid down near the hills or in the valleys of streams which 
may have flowed from them. 

Thus the sources of the Pampean earths were very unlike. The 
accumulation of so great a mass required a long time, during which 
conditions changed. Nevertheless, the Pampean terrane is on the 
whole a remarkably uniform and monotonous deposit, several agen- 



willis] GENERAL GEOLOGIC NOTES 19 

cies, among which wind has been the dominant one, having worked 
the material into a uniform condition. 

Alluvial deposits, composed of unmodified river mud, such as 
rivers carry and deposit in regions of abundant rainfall and vegetation 
consist of coarse as well as of fine clays and sands. They contain 
also more or less carbonaceous matter derived from vegetation. But 
alluvium, which is spread and dries on flats that for any reason are 
not covered by vegetation, is sorted by winds, the fine clay being 
blown out and the coarse stuff being left behind. By being blown 
about or against one another the sand grains are worn down. There 
is also chemical disintegration. By many repetitions the process 
results in a fine flour of the most enduring universal substances, 
aluminous clay, silicious sand, and oxide of iron. Of such is the 
Pampean terrane. 

Thus the Pampean, in the physical and chemical constitution of its 
materials, is a product of processes which require the interaction of 
rivers and winds. On the Arctic plains of northern Siberia, where 
the great rivers flood vast areas and retreating leave them bare, or in 
the immense delta of the Hwang River in eastern China, we may 
find modern illustrations of the Pampean conditions. 

Climate is a factor of the first importance in modifying the effect of 
wind on alluvial deposits. Wind can not raise dust from surfaces 
that are frozen, moist, or sufficiently covered with vegetation, and it 
does not erode them. If alluvial deposits are dry and bare, wind does 
erode even plane surfaces, and when confined by the configuration of 
the surface to a hollow, or channel, it erodes rapidly. That the material 
of the Pampean has been blown about and sorted by wind is clearly 
proved by its uniform fineness, and hence we might conclude that the 
pampas have been arid and bare. But the Pampean is in large part 
a river deposit, such as the Hwang River has spread over the vast 
delta plain of China, and has been distributed by floods in a similar 
delta. The terrane contains abundant remains of large herbivorous 
animals, which lived on grass that must have grown rankly and in 
profusion. Thus there must have been rainfall sufficient to nourish 
vegetation. These evidences of aridity and humidity appear to be 
contradictory, but they are readily explained by geographic relations 
and by changes of climate. 

The geographic relations of the Hwang River are to the point. 
The river rises in the mountains of central Asia, flows through desert 
basins, and descends to the head of its delta heavily laden with desert 
dust. The delta plain which is built of that dust is comparable in 
extent with the pampas of South America. The rivers that now 
flow from" the Cordillera of Bolivia and Argentina southeastward also 
cross desert basins, which are arid because the mountains take the 
moisture from the air currents. They have been more or less arid 



20 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

ever since the uplift of the mountains occasioned the erosion which 
produced the Pampean sediment, and it is reasonable to infer that 
the fineness of the deposit is due to eolian sorting in the desert regions 
through which the rivers flow. This inference probably could not be 
extended to sediments derived from central Brazil, but it may be 
stated that the Pampean terrane which is so derived is less charac- 
teristically eolian than that which occurs farther west and south. 

The parallel with the Hwang River may be extended to the action 
of the wind in the delta plain. During the winter months, in North 
China, when there is no rain or snow and no protecting vegetation 
dust is constantly in the air and dust storms are serious. Eolian 
drifts accumulate in eddies and lees. Similar conditions have existed 
during the formation of the Pampean, for it comprises both relatively 
modern and older deposits of a strictly eolian character occurring 
with others laid down by the river waters or in ponds. 

It is possible that the geographic and seasonable conditions which 
have been described may be found sufficient to explain the various 
aspects of the Pampean terrane. But it is possible also that climatic 
cycles have been an important factor in determining the variation and 
succession of deposits in South America as they have been in the 
northern hemisphere. In order to present this question in the light 
of some of the known facts, we may digress at this point from the 
description of the Pampean terrane to a discussion of the climatic 
changes which characterize the Quaternary period in the Northern 
Hemisphere. 

Here this period is distinguished from the Tertiary epochs which 
preceded it by the rigor of climate which occasioned the glaciation of 
northern Europe and northeastern North America. Ice fields of 
great extent spread from centers so conditioned by excessive snowfall 
and comparatively low temperature that they served as gathering 
grounds for the great neve which supplied the ice. 

These centers were determined by meteorologic and also by topo- 
graphic conditions. In North America two of them were situated in 
the great plains of northern Canada; another was in the northern 
Cordillera. In Europe the principal fields whence proceeded the dis- 
persion of the ice were in northern Germany and in the Alps. 

We were wont to speak of the Quaternary and of the glaciation 
which characterized it as though it were a single glacial period with- 
out intervals of milder climate. But this concept, which marked an 
early stage in the investigation of glacial deposits, has long since 
given way to the recognition of at least four epochs of glaciation and 
three epochs of general interglacial climate in those regions where the 
phenomena are most fully developed. 

The several epochs of the Quaternary have received names which 
differ somewhat according to the center from which the ice spread. 



Willis] GENERAL GEOLOGIC NOTES 21 

Students of Alpine glaciation recognize the Gunz ; Mindel, Riss, and 
Wurm stages, the Gunz being the earliest and the Wurm the latest 
glaciation, which spread from the Alps upon the plains of southern 
Germany. In the United States the deposits which were laid down 
by successive ice sheets that flowed from the great center in Labrador 
are known as the Wisconsin, Illinoian, Kansan, and Jerseyan. Those 
which spread from the other center in Keewatin, west of Hudson Bay, 
are similarly known as the Wisconsin, Illinoian (or Iowan) , Kansan, 
and Nebraskan (or Pre-Kansan) . 

The deposits which have received these names have -been traced 
over large areas in the respective regions in which they occur, and 
have been identified in each separate field as constituting in each case 
a sequence of formations due to recurrent glaciation, while between 
the deposits which indicate the former presence of ice there are found 
others whose character and included fossils demonstrate the existence 
of an intervening epoch of milder climate. Thus it is seen that the 
Quaternary period corresponds in duration with the development and 
retreat of at least four continental ice sheets, and that its time scale 
is marked off into eight epochs, namely, four which were characterized 
by glaciation and four which were marked by milder climate. We 
live in the latest of the milder epochs. 

Having in mind the alternation of glacial and interglacial climatic 
epochs which have been distinguished in the Northern Hemisphere, it 
is reasonable to inquire whether the Pampean yields any evidence of 
similar climatic variations. Its general aspect is monotonous and 
readily suggests an initial inference that the general conditions of 
deposition were similarly uniform. But there are many local details 
which demonstrate the alternate action of wind and water, and hence 
in each such locality the alternation of climatic conditions favorable 
to one or the other agency. In so far as we may be justified in corre- 
lating the sequence of conditions in one locality with those in another, 
we may establish a presumption of general climatic epochs and of 
changes somewhat similar to those of the Northern Hemisphere. Let 
us hasten to say that this statement is not meant to imply that the 
Pampean formation contains a record of glacial and interglacial con- 
ditions. The writer has not observed the slightest evidence of glacial 
deposits in any part of the Pampean. Glacial deposits are entirely 
wanting in the delta deposits of the Hwang River, which the Pampean 
formation most closely resembles, and the origin of the Pampean 
material is to be sought rather in the region of the deserts, as has 
already been explained, than in one of the glacier-covered mountains. 
The fact that the loess deposits of the Mississippi Valley and of central 
Europe owe their origin to glaciers does not affect this statement, for 
the loess deposits of China, which are far more extensive, are inde- 
pendent of glacial origin. But the alternation of climate, of which 



22 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

there is evidence in the Pampean, is from humid to arid and back to 
humid, probably a number of times. It is theoretically probable that 
the epochs of humid climate were the more genial and those of arid 
climate the more rigorous as regards temperature, but of that we have 
as yet no satisfactory evidence. 

With these suggestions we may consider some ol the evidences of 
climatic variation in the Pampean. 

Sections of the Pampean are to be seen at various points along the 
eastern coast of Argentina and have been observed by the writer 
north of Mar del Plata, in the Barrancas de los Lobos south of that 
city, and along the coast farther southeastward at Miramar, Necochea, 
and Monte Hermoso. The sections were carefully studied in each 
locality, but since we require here only an illustration of the kind 
of evidence of climatic change that may be adduced, it will suffice 
to describe a characteristic relation observed in the Barrancas del 
Norte, north of Mar del Plata. 

The Barrancas del Norte are sea cliffs which vary but little from 
an average height of 10 meters. The constituent materials are 
earths which differ in color, texture, and arrangement, and which 
inclose secondary deposits of carbonate of lime forming more or less 
irregular bodies. The earths are characteristic loams of the Pam- 
pean terrane. They are very fine and uniform and usually very free 
from sands; pebbles, except those of the secondary limestone, are 
entirely wanting. In color, they present shades of brown which 
may be described as dark or reddish or fawn-colored. Gray tones 
also occur and certain strata are distinctly greenish. They are often 
compared to the Chinese deposits, to which Richthofen gave the 
name loess, and they share with the material the quality of uniform 
fineness. They are more compact, however, and exhibit many 
details of constitution and structure not found in loess, while at the 
same time they usually lack the columnar structure nearly always 
characterizing loess. 

In the Barrancas del Norte the constituent formations might be 
variously classified as forming two, three, or four distinct horizons. 
From summit to base of the cliff one may recognize — 

Plain: Meters. 

Black soil derived from the Pampean by the introduction of humus and 

possibly by accumulation of dust in the grass 1 

Fawn-colored to gray, or reddish, or yellow-brown Pampean earths, very 

irregularly distributed and varied in structure 4-8 

Greenish, stratified, sometimes sandy, but in general earthy, deposits not 

always present 0-2 

Dark brown, very compact, dense earths, often sandy and constituting an 

earthy sandstone 0-3 

Beach 10 



willis] GENERAL GEOLOGIC NOTES 23 

The basal stratum of dark-brown, often sandy earth, marked by 
compactness and homogeneity and frequent stratification, is a con- 
tinuous formation, which has the characters of eolian material redis- 
tributed by waters. The writer has seen very similar deposits in 
China in the banks of the Grand Canal south of Tientsin, where the 
material was loess redistributed in the vast delta of the Hwang River, 
but it was less compact. As the formation is homogeneous so far 
as traced in the Barrancas del Norte, and as it is very similar to the 
Pampean formations which extend from the Barrancas de los Lobos 
for many scores of miles southward, we can not ascribe it to strictly 
local conditions. On the contrary, it represents a general phase of 
erosion and deposition which corresponds apparently to the removal 
of fluvio-eolian formations from some one region and their redepo- 
sition where they are now found. The writer is inclined to regard 
this formation and similar deposits as due to river work on confluent 
flood plains and consequently as made during a relatively humid 
period. 

The upper surface of the basal formation in the Barrancas dei Norte 
is eroded and the hollows are filled by later deposits, sometimes of one 
character, sometimes of another. Characteristic examples are rep- 
resented in the illustrations (pis. 2, 3). It will be seen that the for- 
mation was carved by an agent that undercut the sides and rounded 
the bottoms of the hollows, leaving masses with sharp points or 
edges in relief. Wind produces these effects in this material, whereas 
water cuts channels having nearly vertical walls. Thus it would 
appear that wind erosion, which is favored by, if not dependent on, 
aridity, succeeded an epoch of deposition that was conditioned by 
humidity. The eroded surface is not deeply carved but the extreme 
relief of about two meters which it exhibits is probably near the 
limit of height which the brown earth could maintain. It is impos- 
sible to say how much may have been removed above this surface, 
and we are thus left in doubt so far as this occurrence in the Bar- 
rancas del Norte is concerned whether the erosion was local and tem- 
porary or was occasioned by a general change. The phenomenon 
recurs, however, in other exposures of the formation at Miramar and 
at Necochea, and appears to be characteristic of the zone which 
is now laid open along the coast. Thus it is not improbable that 
the area of erosion was a broad one due to a somewhat general climatic 
and geographic change. 

In the Barrancas del Norte the eroded surface of the Ensenadean 
comes into contact with several formations, which are unlike in color 
and constitution. The one which covers the longest stretches is a 
greenish stratified deposit formed of Pampean earth, which has been 
somewhat deoxidized. Similar greenish deposits occur here and there 



24 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [boll. 52 

in the Pampean terrane up to the more recent formations, where they 
may be identified by their topographic relations on the present sur- 
face as having formed in ponds or lakes. The reduction of the iron 
oxide to which the green color is due is a natural effect of the presence 
of organic matter that gathers in ponds. Ameghino was the first 
to recognize their lacustrine origin. In the Barrancas del Norte 
they are sharply contrasted in color with the dark-brown Ensena- 
dean, and the eroded surface is direct evidence of an interval between 
the episodes of deposition. 

The eroded surface of the lower stratum worked out by wind and 
not by running water no doubt presented more or less extensive 
hollows in which pools or ponds would form and water-laid sediments 
would accumulate, provided there was sufficient rain. The deposits 
are water-laid and appear to constitute evidence of a return to con- 
ditions of greater humidity than had existed during the episode of 
erosion. 

The formations which succeeded the lacustrine deposits where the 
latter occur, or which rest on the lower brown earth where the lacus- 
trines are wanting, are of two kinds. There is a fine whitish or light- 
gray stratum which exhibits the vertical structure characteristic 
of eolian loess and which also possesses the fineness and uniformity 
of wind-blown dust. The light color is peculiar and is not explained 
by any field observation. This white or gray loess is locally con- 
formable to the brown sandy earth and again is separated from it by 
pockets of pink pebbly loess described below. 

The formation which may be called pink pebbly loess, according to 
its color and constitution, is a fine-grained, light reddish-brown 
deposit, which includes small pebbles of the same material. The 
texture, homogeneity, and structure are eolian. The pebbles also 
could have been formed only by wind action, since the loess of which 
they consist would readily melt down in water and lose its form. The 
formation thus suggests arid conditions. It occurs characteristically 
in wind-eroded hollows which are more or less undercut, and thus it 
indicates the activity of the wind as it erodes and fills. Were it not 
for the intervening lacustrine formation there would be no reason 
for separating the episode of erosion during which the basal stratum 
was sculptured from the episode of erosion and filling which is marked 
by the pebbly loess, and the climatic variation would be simply 
from more humid to more arid. But the occurrence of the lacustrine 
deposits in the hollows cut in the basal stratum and the fact that 
they are themselves sometimes cut out by the hollows filled by the 
pebbly loess indicate that between two episodes when wind erosion 
was favored, presumably by aridity, there was an interval of pre- 
cipitation adequate to produce ponds. 



willis] GENERAL. GEOLOGIC NOTES 25 

The horizon of the whitish-gray loess and of the pink pebbly loess 
is characterized by great irregularity of deposits, and is thus dis- 
tinguished from the higher horizon immediately overlying them, 
which is occupied by a fawn-colored eolian earth most examples of 
which are a structureless loess, but some of which exhibit columnar 
structure. The fawn-colored loess is the highest of the formations 
in the Barrancas del Norte and forms the upper third to half of the 
bluff. It is continuous with the pink pebbly loess, which changes 
gradually in color and loses the pebbly inclusions from below upward. 
It is strongly contrasted in color with the whitish-gray and the plane 
between them is clearly marked, but is flat and not eroded. Thus the 
fawn-colored loess may be regarded as the upward continuation of 
these two dissimilar deposits with which it corresponds in being of 
wind origin. It merges upward into the black soil, which is derived 
from it. 

In the foregoing descriptions of the original characters of the for- 
mation in the Barrancas del Norte, the secondary feature, the occur- 
rence of limestone masses, or tosca, has purposely been omitted, it 
being regarded as a deposit from ground waters subsequent to the 
deposition of the earth in which it occurs. 

There are two horizons in the Barrancas del Norte at which lime- 
stone is strongly developed. One is near the base of the cliff, some- 
what less than a meter below the upper surface of the dark-brown 
sandy earth that forms the base of the exposed section. There is a 
heavy horizontal plate of limey rock, in many places two-thirds of a 
meter thick, and fairly constant in occurrence. According to the 
writer's understanding of the process of tosca formation, it represents 
the zone or horizon within which the ground water rises and falls, 
while diffusing by capillary action and evaporating from the surface. 
The conditions which are most favorable are those of semiaridity. 
The density and continuity of the residual lime deposit constitute a 
measure of the time during which the action continued at the hori- 
zon, and as this formation is both dense and continuous it appears to 
correspond to a notable episode. Thus, the lower plate or stratum 
of tosca strengthens the evidence for an arid or semiarid epoch, fol- 
lowing the deposition of the brown, sandy alluvium. 

The upper horizon of strongly developed tosca is at the base of 
and in the fawn-colored loess that constitutes the upper third or 
half of the barrancas. The limey rock occurs in irregular branching 
masses that are longer vertically than horizontally and are more or 
less separated from one another. The forms and occurrence are 
adjusted to the structure of the loess, which is itself irregular and 
occasions their irregularity. This horizon seems to indicate an 
episode of climatic condition favorable to evaporation — semiaridity — 



26 BtTKEATJ OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

but the surface of the ground during that interval appears not to 
have differed from the present surface. The writer regards this tosca 
zone as evidence of a drier epoch antedating the present relatively 
humid one. 

Tosca occurs irregularly at other levels or without reference to a 
particular level in the loess deposits. Some of it has been displaced 
and reburied; some has been washed and rolled. It is evident that 
local conditions have favored the deposition of secondary lime at 
various times, if not usually, throughout that part of the Pampean 
period which is represented by this section. But during two epochs 
the relations of surface- and ground- water level were particularly con- 
stant for a sufficient time in each case to produce especially heavy 
deposits. The first of these epochs coincides with the period of 
passage from the alluvial deposition represented by the dark-brown 
earth at the base to the period of aridity that succeeded. The second 
does not correspond with any time-interval observed in the section, 
but with a later episode. 

The interpretation of the Barrancas del Norte which the deposits 
and contacts suggest to the writer may therefore be provisionally 
stated as follows : 

The (n+1) episode Brown earthy loess — alluvial humid 

The (n+2) episode Wind erosion — tosca formation semiarid 

The (n+3) episode Lacustrine humid 

The (n+4) episode Wind erosion and loess deposits semiarid to arid 

The (n+5) episode Tosca formation semiarid 

The (n+6) episode Black earth humid 

In this section Ameghino distinguishes three distinct deposits, 
which he has named Ensenadean, Bonaerean, and Belgranean. 
The writer likewise recognizes three episodes of deposition, namely, 
the (n+1), (n + 3), and (n + 4) divisions of the above climatic scale. 
The criteria on which he bases his divisions are, however, not of a 
character to permit him to correlate them with the formations at the 
type localities from which they are named by Ameghino. He feels, 
moreover, that the criteria by which to distinguish the climatic divi- 
sions of Pampean time require further study before complete confi- 
dence can be placed in the conclusions. 

The characteristics which mark the Pampean terrane in the section 
of the Barrancas del Norte may be recognized in numerous other sec- 
tions along the coast: For instance, at the Barrancas de los Lobos, 
south of Mar del Plata, near Miramar, near Necochea, and also at 
Monte Hermoso (a few miles east of Bahia Blanca). The basal 
stratum exposed in the Barrancas del Norte may be traced to the 
Barrancas de los Lobos, where it lies in the upper part of the cliffs 
above some 10 meters of similar material, which is exposed between 
it and the sea. The lower formation is somewhat darker in color 




_J & 



BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 



BULLETIN 52 PLATE 3 




BARRANCAS DEL NORTE, MAR DEL PLATA 

Showing unconformity, due to effects of erosion, between basal bed and deposit of loess. 



WiLLisJ GENERAL GEOLOGIC NOTES 2Y 

than the upper, but exhibits similar evidences of erosion and eolian 
deposition. At Miramar and Necochea the formation, which is 
exposed in the low bluffs also, consists of loess-like alluvium, the sur- 
face of which has been eroded and filled in by wind. Similar char- 
acters may be seen at Monte Hermoso and, as shown in plates 2 and 3, 
at Mar del Plata. According to Ameghino, the exposure at Monte 
Hermoso shows at the base a member of the Pampean terrane which 
is even older than the lowest exposed in the Barrancas de los Lobos. 
There is nothing in the lithologic or physical characters of the 
deposit which would enable one to form an opinion on this point. 
Ameghino 's view is based on the faunas of the respective localities. 

Whatever the relative ages of the various deposits that are to be 
seen in the sea cliffs of the eastern coast may be, they all exhibit the 
evidence of identical physical conditions and point to alternations of 
humidity and aridity during the time of their distribution. 

It is not necessary to pursue in detail the geologic and chrono- 
logic problems connected with these older formations of the Pam- 
pean, for the present investigation is concerned primarily only with 
those formations which are related to the problem of man's existence 
in the region, and the writers have not been able to find any evidence 
which would show that he lived during Pampean time. Human 
remains have been found, so far as the writers have been able to 
observe, only in recent deposits, some of which are classed by them 
as the Upper Pampean and others as post-Pampean formations. The 
later phases of the Pampean may now be considered. 

Upper Pampean and Post-Pampean 

To Dr. Santiago Roth the writer is indebted for having pointed out 
the distinction between the Upper Pampean and the Middle Pampean 
of Roth's classification, as exposed in sections near La Plata; near 
Anchorena, on the Rio de la Plata above Buenos Aires; in the Arroyo 
de Ramallo; and at San Lorenzo, near Rosario. Doctor Ameghino 
designated as Upper Pampean two deposits seen at and near Mar del 
Plata. 

All of the deposits which were thus referred to the Upper Pam- 
pean are characterized by the features which distinguish eolian loess. 
The material is finely pulverent, not firmly consolidated, often colum- 
nar in structure; it is light-gray or fawn colored and contains sec- 
ondary limestone only in relatively small amount as compared with 
the older Pampean formations. It is a formation which obviously 
is composed of material eroded by the wind from the older Pampean 
and redeposited in favorable localities in the form of eolian drifts. 
It does not appear probable, considering the conditions of develop- 
ment and the present irregular distribution, that the Upper Pampean 
ever formed a widespread mantle in the region of its occurrence. It 



28 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

is distinctly a drifted formation and occurs with the irregularity 
which characterizes drifts. 

It is doubtful whether we may safely speak of an Upper Pampean 
epoch in the sense of a definite division of geologic time. We have 
seen that eolian loess occurs as a characteristic constituent of the 
older Pampean terranes. The material for the formation of eolian 
drifts has been available and winds to erode and redeposit it have 
been active in later epochs also. From the time when the earliest 
alluviums of the Pampean terrane were formed to the present, 
deposits possessing the physical characters of the Upper Pampean 
have been developed. Thus it seems impracticable to distinguish an 
Upper Pampean formation on physical characters alone. There is 
paleontologic evidence, but it rests primarily on the physical, for the 
biologic lines of descent can not be established except by observation 
of the stratigraphic sequence. Those fossils which have been found 
in the superficial eolian loess have been assigned to the Upper Pam- 
pean, because they occurred in a position above the older Pampean 
and in material having Upper Pampean characteristics. In these 
criteria, however, there is nothing by which to distinguish the oldest 
Upper Pampean loess from the most recent, and it is not impossible 
that the range of time represented by such loess deposits corresponds 
with a large part or all of the Quaternary period. 

While the writer is thus in doubt as to the stratigraphic and chron- 
ologic value to be given the term Upper Pampean, there are cer- 
tain relations which serve to set an earliest date before winch the 
Upper Pampean did not develop in the superficial position in 
which it is now recognized. These limiting relations are physio- 
graphic and climatic. As will be seen by referring to the description 
of the Arroyo de Ramallo, to that of Mar del Plata, and to other 
occurrences of the Upper Pampean, the Upper Pampean deposits 
occupy peculiar positions in the eroded surface of the older forma- 
tions. In so far as this may be generally true they could not have 
been deposited until after the surface had been eroded, and the ero- 
sion could not have taken place until the older formations had been 
elevated above base level. There is thus a recognizable effect of 
deformation which intervenes between the Upper Pampean and any 
older formation. 

The Upper Pampean did not develop, however, immediately after 
the elevation of the region. The relations which may be seen between 
Buenos Aires and Rosario show that shallow valleys were formed by 
small confluent streams that grew out of the Parana and that they 
afforded the appropriate locus for deposition of the Upper Pampean. 
(Plate 4.) Valley erosion by these local streamlets does not seem 
consistent with simultaneous valley-filling by winds. The two seem 



willis] GENERAL GEOLOGIC NOTES 29 

to have been distinct in time, the latter succeeding the former. Thus 
we may probably recognize an episode during which the alluvial 
plain formed by the surface of the older Pampean was raised to its 
present altitude above base level, an episode of humid climate dur- 
ing which the drifts of eolian loess, the Upper Pampean, were 
deposited. As those drifts are now cut through by the streamlets, a 
later episode of erosion is distinguishable, which appears to coincide 
with the present time. 

"Upper Pampean" thus gains a certain definiteness as a geologic 
term by virtue of the physical relations in which the characteristic 
deposits occur, and may have value in systematic classification if it 
be limited to deposits formed during that episode of aridity which 
preceded the present humidity. The writer has not seen enough of 
the field, however, to know whether such a distinction is valid or not, 
and it does not appear that the term has been thus critically applied. 

Post-Pampean deposits fall into four classes, namely: Lacustrine, 
alluvial, dune, and marine formations, all of which are dependent on 
topographic features as they now exist. In order to develop the 
conditions of deposition, it is necessary to describe the topography and 
the Atlantic coast of the pampas with reference to their origin and 
stage of growth. We will take up first the topography of the pampas. 

The word pampa, signifying "flat plain," describes the pampas 
correctly only in so far as it applies to the general aspect of the surface. 
One must look beyond the foreground in order to see the extraordinary 
flatness of the pampas. In detail they are not flat, and yet in the 
foreground itself there are rarely those inequalities of the surface which 
are common in plains traversed by running streams, even where they 
are least eroded. The absence of running water and of the landscape 
forms which it produces is one of the most striking though negative 
phenomena of the Argentine plains. The characteristic surface form 
of the pampas is a gentle hollow or an equally imperceptible swell, 
each of them entirely devoid of line or sharp accent and each melting 
without distinction into the other. A horseman galloping over the 
apparently dead level surface sinks partly out of sight like a ship 
beyond an ocean swell and remains perhaps below the plane of vision 
while he rides a mile or more. A rabbit startled from the grassy flat 
is lost in sameness of color until he suddenly appears in silhouette 
against the sky as he tops the swell and beyond it disappears. These 
broad hollows and swells have no systematic relation to any structure 
of the Pampean earths, nor to any system of drainage. They are 
probably related to the prevailing direction of the winds which pro- 
duced them, whether such winds be those of the present climatic 
episode or were those of a preceding time; but if such a relation exists 
the forms which may betray it will be discovered only by careful 



30 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

topographic mapping. Nevertheless, the wind origin of the surface 
features of the pampas is obvious in the general form of the hollows 
and swells. Anyone who has studied a loess-covered landscape knows 
the long sweep from plain to mountain which is the characteristic 
form of equilibrium that is produced where the wind is deflected 
upward from the plain. Like the slope of equilibrium of the beach it 
varies in declivity with the material and the force of the moving ele- 
ment, and like the drumloid curve produced by ice it is definitely 
characteristic of the fashioning medium. The pampas everywhere 
bear the impress of the wind which has scoured, hollowed, and molded 
their vast flat expanses of fine brown earth. 

The surface which is thus characterized as an effect of wind sculp- 
ture is modified along the right bank of the Parana, in what is now 
the most humid region of the Province of Buenos Aires, by stream 
erosion. A number of small valleys have their rise in the pampa and 
extend more or less directly to the river. Those which the writer has 
particularly examined are at Alvear and Ramallo; another is crossed 
by the railroad near Baradero. These are but examples of similar 
valleys of erosion which occasion the frequent up and down grades on 
the Ferrocarril Central between Buenos Aires and Rosario. The 
Arroyo de Ramallo is characteristic. (PL 4.) 

The Arroyo de Ramallo debouches into the Parana with a low flood 
plain about a kilometer in width. Between 2 and 3 kilometers from 
the Parana the little valley is much narrower and is bordered by 
steep banks and low bluffs. A kilometer higher up the stream has 
been dammed and affords a fall of about 3 meters. Its channel 
extends a very considerable distance farther back into the plain, but 
only as a shallow talweg. 

The little valleys of which the Arroyo de Ramallo is a type are in 
an early stage of development. They are due to little confluent 
autogenous streams that have grown back from the Parana into the 
pampas and as yet have reached no more than a youthful growth. 
Their history embodies, it is true, the early episode of erosion, which 
was followed by partial filling with eolian loess, and most recently by 
reexcavation of the talweg, but when we consider the softness of the 
Pampean earths as opposed to the eroding power of a stream, we are 
obliged to recognize that these little streams have accomplished but 
a small amount of erosion. 

In the photograph shown in plate 5, we see the bank of the Parana 
at San Lorenzo, above Rosario. The level Pampean plain extends at 
an elevation of 12 to 15 meters above the river and ends in nearly 
vertical bluffs, which are scarcely attacked by erosion. Talus is also 
wanting and the scarp is very young. It overlooks the wide channel 



BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 



BULLETIN 52 PLATE 5 




BANKS OF THE PARANA AT SAN LORENZO 



willis] GENERAL GEOLOGIC NOTES 31 

of the Parana and the alluvial islands on the farther side, and it is 
apparent that the great river is corrading — literally cutting away — the* 
bank faster than talus or gullies can develop. But though ^he river is 
a powerful agent of erosion it has not accomplished a great deal in 
widening its flood plain at this favorable point. The work is only 
begun. • 

In describing the warped surface of the old continent it was stated 
that the Parana and the Rio de la Plata occupied a downwarp. 
Southwest of their depression the Pampean plain rises very gently in 
an upwarp to an altitude of between 30 and 40 meters above sea. 
The highest part of the plain lies in a line which trends from northwest 
to southeast, some 50 kilometers southwest of Buenos Aires. About 
50 kilometers still farther southwest there is another depression whose 
axis is approximately parallel to that of the Rio de la Plata and which 
is occupied by one of the several salt rivers (Rio Salado) of the coun- 
try. This depression constitutes the eastern portion of the Province 
of Buenos Aires, in latitude 36°, and is an area in which extensive 
drainage canals have been thought necessary. The general elevation 
of the plain rises from near sea level to 25 meters in the valley of the 
Salado, but there is no perceptible slope and the extraordinary flat- 
ness of the surface is such that during the rainy seasons of wet years 
rain water has stood over many square kilometers where during drier 
years there spread the grassy plain. The channel of the Salado, 
meandering through this flat, is shown in the photograph (pi. 25). 
It will be noticed that the river is in a peculiar state of equilibrium. 
It is not deeply corrading, neither is it aggrading the channel. It 
has sufficient fall to carry away the silt which it brings and therefore 
does not build up its banks above the neighboring plain, as is the habit 
of rivers in their deltas, nor does it appear to be obstructed. Yet its 
force is not sufficient to excavate its channel to a greater depth below 
the surface than is required to carry its waters. The river may be 
said to flow practically at base level. The writer observed these 
relations in the vicinity of the stations called Villanueva and General 
Belgrano, and noted them as an illustration of a surface which, 
although elevated considerably above sea level, and traversed by 
streams, does not exhibit any of the features sculptured by running 
water. This condition may be attributed to the fact that confluent 
streams have not yet developed on the gentle slopes that descend 
from the northeast and from the southwest toward the Rio Salado. 
Due allowance must be made for the effects of wind erosion, which 
has produced very broad and shallow hollows in the plain, in which 
the rain waters gather and evaporate instead of running off. Never- 
theless, the period of time is short during which such a surface, when 



32 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

elevated, may retain its integrity. The drainage systems have not 
had time to develop since the Pampean was warped up to its present 
position. 

Thus observations of the effects of erosion along the Parana and in 
the valley of the Salado show that streams have done very little work 
on the Pampean formation. Indeed, the features which they have 
sculptured are insignificant. Hence, the elevation of the pampas may 
be regarded as recent. If, however, it should appear on further study 
that stream erosion has been retarded by the peculiar character of 
the pampas to a greater degree than now seems probable, and that 
there have been one or more epochs of aridity during which stream 
erosion was reduced to practically nothing, there would be reason for 
extending the time that has elapsed since the uplifting of the surface, 
and it might be that this later history would cover the Quaternary 
period. 

It has already been stated that those eolian deposits, which are 
characterized as Upper Pampean by both Roth and Ameghino, he in 
hollows sculptured in the surface of the Pampean, and the same holds 
true for the still younger deposits of alluvium and dune sands. All of 
these, including the Upper Pampean, appear to the writer to fall in 
the Quaternary. It may or may not follow that the earlier Pampean 
formations were deposited during the later Tertiary (Pliocene and 
late Miocene), though this is probable; but they also may be in part 
of the Quaternary age. 

ATLANTIC COAST OF THE PAMPAS 

If now we turn from the consideration of the pampas to that of the 
eastern coast of Argentina, we must recognize at once that the coast 
line has reached its present position by virtue of wave erosion on the 
uplifted mass of the Pampean. In order to place this proposition in 
its appropriate relations, we may consider the development of the 
coast as the result of the attack of the ocean on the inert mass of the 
Pampean earths. 

A shore is fashioned by waves and currents, driven chiefly by winds. 
In the course of their attack they destroy headlands, build bars, 
spits, and beaches across embayments, and eventually establish a 
coast which is adjusted to and in equilibrium with their activities. 
A young coast is distinguished by irregularity, an old coast by 
smoothness. On a young coast the wave-cut terraces and sea cliffs 
are conspicuous features; on an old coast the cliffs due to wave action 
are modified or obliterated by subaerial erosion. It may happen 
that sea cliffs cut in enduring rock stand for a relatively long time, 
but a cliff of earth, however compact, is a very transient feature. 



willis] GENERAL GEOLOGIC NOTES 33 

The eastern coast of Argentina is composed, to a great extent, of 
sea cliffs of the Pampean earths. Many of these are too steep to climb 
and are frequently undercut by the waves that beat against the base. 
Their height depends on the elevation of the plains and is usually not 
more than 10 to 15 meters, but in the Barrancas de los Lobos, south 
of Mar del Plata, the cliffs attain an altitude of 28 meters. (See 
pi. 6.) As one walks beneath these bluffs of clay and notes the fallen 
masses of earth disintegrating at the foot of the cliff, one can not but 
recognize that the present coast line is a transient thing. It evidently 
changes measureably from decade to decade and no feature of it can 
be many centuries old: Thus no bank or slope or eroded surface 
between the plain and the beach, nor any deposit built upon such a 
slope, can be considered to be older than very recent. 

The coastal deposits which may be observed along the recent coast 
of Buenos Aires are of three kinds : Beach, dune, and coquina forma- 
tions. The beaches are deposits of sand formed between the base of 
the cliffs and the sea and are usually so narrow that they are covered 
by the rising tide. Except as subordinate features at the foot of the 
bluffs, they are entirely wanting. Sometimes their shoreward limit 
is formed of dunes. 

Dunes are conspicuous features. These occur wherever there is a 
source of sand and a surface upon which they can accumulate. They 
appear to be absent only where the sea cliffs are so steep and high that a 
dune can not find lodgment. Even then sand is blown into the hollows 
wrought by wind and waves in the face of the cliff, and lies in banks 
and festoons which sometimes simulate interbedded sandy strata. 
The universal activity of the wind and its efficiency in transporting 
sand constitute most striking facts in the present condition of the 
coast. The writer's observations cover particularly the stretch from 
Mar del Plata to Bahia Blanca, but the data regarding the direction 
and frequency of winds are available for the stretch from Buenos 
Aires to Bahia Blanca. In Ins work on the climate of the Republic of 
Argentina, 1 Davis gives two tables, one for Buenos Aires and the other 
for Bahia Blanca, which embody the results of observations taken 
three times daily and referred to a scale of 1,000 monthly observations. 
The original data are arranged with reference to the months and eight 
points of the compass, namely, north, northeast, east, and so forth. 
For our purpose we may group these observations into two classes, 
one representing winds which may be said to blow from the sea, and 
the other those which blow from the land. The first class comprises 
winds from northeast, east, southeast, and south, and the second those 

1 Davis, Gualterio G., Clima de la Republica Argentina, Buenos Aires, 1909, pp. 41-44. 
21535°— Bull. 52—12 3 



34 



BTJEEAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 



[bull. 52 



from southwest, west, northwest, and north. The figures taken from 
Davis's tables then yield the following: 



Month 


Buenos Aires 


Bahia Blanca 


NE. to S. 


SW. to N. 


NE. to S. 


SW. to N. 




685 
593 
677 
555 
-446 
422 
486 
5S7 
663 
703 
668 
646 


315 
393 
323 
445 
554 
578 
514 
413 
337 
297 
332 
364 


389 
376 
308 
235 
151 
136 
207 
225 
280 
353 
376 
334 


611 




624 




692 




765 




849 




864 


July 


793 




775 




720 




647 




624 




666 








7,131 


4,865 


3,370 


8,630 



These figures show that at Buenos Aires the winds blow far more 
frequently from the sea than from the land, whereas at Bahia Blanca 
the reverse is the case. Davis comments on this fact and states that 
if the data were to be given for a number of intermediate stations it^ 
would be seen that the variation in frequency of the winds changes 
from north to south in a regular manner in obedience to a physical 
law. An examination of the isobaric and isothermal charts for differ- 
ent seasons, accompanying Davis's work, shows clearly the nature of 
this law and its relation to the observed variation. According to the 
same official source of information, the mean annual velocity of the 
wind at Buenos Aires is 15.8 kilometers per hour and there is no 
month in the year in which the mean monthly velocity falls below 13 
kilometers per hour. At Bahia Blanca the annual mean is 14.9 and 
the least monthly mean is 10.2. 

The effect of the barometric and thermometric conditions is to 
produce winds which, along the northeastern coast of the Province 
of Buenos Aires, blow prevailingly on shore, and this condition 
extends to a point south of Mar del Plata. The coast then trends 
away southwest, while the prevailing direction of the wind veers in 
the same direction, but through even a greater angle, so that as we 
go from Mar del Plata southwestward toward Bahia Blanca the pre- 
vailing winds blow more and more nearly in a direction parallel to 
the coast. The effect of these relations on the work of the wind is 
seen in the distribution of sand dunes, which become high and 
numerous and occupy a relatively broad belt along this shore where- 
ever the sea cliffs do not prevent. 

By reference to the local description of the coast northeast of 
Necochea it will be seen that there are older and younger dunes, which 



wjllis] GENERAL GEOLOGIC NOTES 35 

clearly belong to different episodes of development. The older ones 
lie inland in a zone behind the younger. They are grass-grown and 
sink away to low mounds till they merge into the plain. Where the 
drainage is ponded behind them there are little lakes. Beneath 
them is a layer of black earth representing the soil of the former 
plain over which the dunes advanced with the advance of the sea 
upon the coast. The younger dunes are composed of moving sand. 
They rise directly from the existing beach, to which they are obvi- 
ously related, and form a zone a kilometer or more in width. They 
vary from less than 10 to more than 20 meters in height, rise in a 
long, wind-wrought curve from southeast to northwest, and on the 
northwest side are as steep as the sand will lie. 

At the mouth of the Rio Quequen, near Necochea, the dunes are 12 
to 15 meters high and advancing from the southwest have pushed 
the river northward so that it flows through a restricted channel 
beneath a cut bank in the loess 12 meters high. At Monte Hermoso 
the zone of large grass-grown dunes is 3 to 5 kilometers wide, and the 
dunes themselves attain a height of 25 meters or more above the sea. 
Monte Hermoso is a dune 27 meters in height, the upper 20 meters 
being sand and the base consisting of the Monte Hermoso formation. 
These brief descriptions will suffice to indicate the effective work 
which is being accomplished by the wind along this stretch of coast, 
and to make it clear that the dunes are a strictly coastal formation 
dependent on the proximity of the sea, formed from the beach sands, 
and moved by the winds whose prevailing direction depends on exist- 
ing relations of land and sea. More detailed descriptions are given 
in the accounts of the specific points visited. 

The coquina which forms on the eastern coast of Argentina is 
intimately related to the dunes in origin, since the wind is the chief 
agent in its production. But, whereas the sand dunes are developed 
by the more regular winds, the coquina is the product of the storms. 
It consists chiefly of broken shells mingled with sand and gravel, but 
includes also any pebbles or other large objects, such as bones, which 
may happen to occur with the sand. It is usually more or less 
indurated, and this character, together with the fact that it contains 
fragments of fossils identical with those which occur in the under- 
lying Pampean, has led to its being considered a Tertiary formation. 
The writer regards it as strictly equivalent in character and origin 
with the coquina of the Florida coast, in regard to which we may 
quote the following description: 1 

" One of the most common of the marine Quaternary deposits is the 
coquina which occurs at various points along the coast. This con- 
sists of a mass of more or less water-worn shells cemented by calcium- 
carbonate. The amount of cement is seldom great enough to close 

l Sellards, E. H., State Geologist, in Second Annual Report of Florida State Geological Survey, 1908-09, 
p. 153. 



36 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

the openings between the individual shells, though in some localities 
the process of cementation has proceeded far enough to produce a 
rather compact fossiliferous limestone. There is usually more or less 
sand present, which is commonly in the form of thin laminae separating 
the shell beds, and various gradations from sand rock to shell rock 
may be noted along the Florida coast." 

Sellards quotes from an account published by James Pierce in 1825, 
in the American Journal of Science : 

"Extensive beds of shell rock of a peculiar character occupy the 
borders of the ocean in various places from the River St. Johns to 
Cape Florida. They are composed of unmineralized marine shells 
of species common to our coast, mostly small bivalves, whole and 
in minute division, connected by calcareous cement. I examined 
this rock on the Isle of Anastasia, opposite St. Augustine, where it 
extends for miles, rising 20 feet above the sea and of unknown depth. 
It has been penetrated about 30 feet. In these quarries horizontal 
strata of shell rock of sufficient thickness and solidity for good build- 
ing stone alternate with narrow parallel beds of larger and mostly 
unbroken shells, but slightly connected. ' * " The large Spanish 
fort and most of the public and private buildings of St. Augustine 
are constructed of this stone. The rock extends in places into the 
sea with superincumbent beds of new shells of the same character." 

In the report from which these quotations are given the Quaternary 
is divided into Pleistocene and Recent and the coquina is placed in 
both Pleistocene and Recent, along with beach sands and eolian 
deposits. The various deposits of coquina along the coast have 
repeatedly been observed and studied by both Dall and Vaughan, 
and their Quaternary age has been determined by these observers. 

From the example of the coquina of the Florida coast we learn that 
indurated formations may be even as modern as the Recent epoch. 
They may also be Pleistocene, and the question of age determination 
depends hi a large measure on their relation to other formations or 
to physiographic features. Paleontologic evidence also has bearing, 
but there are two conditions which may qualify it. The life range of 
species may cover the time of development of different masses of 
coquina which are physiographically distinguishable, for the move- 
ments and accidents of coastal development are constantly affording 
new and different conditions under which shells may be assembled 
and cemented. Again, in case a coquina contains remains of both 
living and extinct species, the latter belonging to an older formation 
from which they may be derived, we can not accept with any confi- 
dence the evidence of these older fossils as to the age of the coquina. 

The coquina of the Argentine coast may then be studied with 
reference to its constitution, hardness, and the capacity of existing 
agencies to cement it; in regard also to its relation to the existing 



Wifcisisj GENERAL GEOLOGIC NOTES 87 

coast line and the speeial features thereof; and finally as to the fossil 
content. 

The Argentine coquina is composed, in the several places where 
the writer observed it, of materials derived directly from the adjoining 
strand. The sand, the pebbles, the larger stones, and the shells are 
all identical, so far as they possess similar characteristics, with those 
which make up the latest beach deposits. The sand is both white 
and black, being composed of grains of quartz and of various dark 
grains derived from volcanic rocks. The pebbles are in large part 
those which have been styled "Patagonian," because they are the 
same as those which form the widespread pebble deposit of the 
Patagonian plateaus. They are brought along the shore by the pre- 
vailing northerly drift of the inshore currents. The shells and shell 
fragments are those of thick-shelled bivalves which occur in limited 
quantities on the beach and live in adjacent waters. Thus, as 
regards constitution, the coquina is identical with the beach. 

The physiographic relations of the coquina are definite. It occurs 
only in immediate relation to the present coast within reach of the 
waves or spray. It usually lies at the beach level. In one case, 
however, namely, at the mouth of the Arroyo del Barco, to the 
south of Mar del Plata, the coquina occurs up to a maximum alti- 
tude of 9 meters above the beach; and again at the Boca del Moro, 
north of Necochea, it was observed just above the modern beach, 
lying in a slope continuous with the beach, but eroded by gullies. 
At the Arroyo del Barco the coquina lies in an angle of the coast, at 
the head of the Playa de Peralta, where it is open to the storm waves 
of the Atlantic and at a point where the converging shores concen- 
trate them and give them exceptional force. At the Boca del Moro 
the occurrence of the coquina may be within the reach of an unusual 
storm, but it is not unreasonable to postulate that the shore currents 
have built out the sandy beach and have thus widened the strand 
sufficiently to remove the zone of former wave action from that 
of the present breakers. Another occurrence of this formation is 
on the slope of Punta Porvenir, south of Mar del Plata. It there 
consists of a mingling of sand and loess and extends from the low 
bluff back of the beach to a distance of 110 meters from the shore, 
that is to say, to the limit which may be reached by spray from the 
storm waves breaking on the prominent point. It was in this deposit 
that the Ameghinos found the carapace of a glyptodon associated 
with hand-worked stones. Just north of Punta Piedras at Mar del 
Plata the coquina occurs on the beach in the lee of the quartzite 
point, where the waves have washed in the material which goes 
to make up the conglomeratic and pebbly deposit. It also consists 
largely of shells and is cemented by lime. A peculiar interest 
attaches to it because it appears to underlie a portion of the bluff, 



38 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

which is here composed of eolian loess. This loess is assigned to 
the Upper Pampean and still greater age is allotted to the coquina 
beneath it. The coquina is not to be seen in section beneath the 
loess, but is said to have been struck in numerous wells that were 
put down through the bluff. This lee, or sheltered place, behind 
which the coquina occurs, was produced when the waves cut out the 
little bay that is now protected by the quartzite of Punta Piedras, 
and the eolian deposit, like the coquina, is genetically related to 
the present strand line. 

The fossil content of the coquina is well known to consist of shells 
of living species, but is said to include also shells and bones of extinct 
species. A number of specimens brought by the writer from the 
localities where he examined the coquina, between Mar del Plata 
and Necochea, contained shells of living species only. In one 
fragment a shell of an extinct species was found; the specimen 
came without a label and the locality from which it was derived 
could not be identified with certainty. 

In the coquina at Arroyo del Barco, Doctor Hrdlicka and the 
writer observed a bone which was too firmly imbedded in the rock to 
be secured, but which appeared to be a jaw or pelvis, possibly of 
an ungulate. Ameghino stated that the formation contains bones 
of extinct species peculiar to the Pampean formation (Ensenadean) 
upon which it rests. In view of the fact that the coast is eroded 
from this same formation and that any bones contained in it must 
be washed out and swept along with the beach sands and gravel, 
it is to be expected that the more massive ones or portions of them 
may have become imbedded in the coquina. It is said that delicate 
or articulated bones have been found in the formation. They could 
hardly survive in such a deposit as that at the Arroyo del Barco, 
as it is composed of very coarse material which could be moved 
only by use of considerable force, but the mingled loess and sand 
of Punta Porvenir might bury lighter objects, either weathered out 
upon the surface of the underlying Pampean or contemporaneous 
with the recent deposit. Thus the carapace of the glyptodon 
found on Punta Porvenir may be a fossil from the older Pampean 
(Ensenadean) or it may indicate the survival of that species down 
to the recent time when the coast developed in its present position 
and the eolian deposit was formed. In this case the paleontologic 
evidence must derive its significance from the more direct and 
unequivocal stratigraphic and physical relations. 

Summary of Geologic Relations 

In the preceding pages the facts which the writer regards as most 
essential to an understanding of the geology of the region under 
review have been briefly sketched. They may be summarized as 
follows : 



Willis] GENERAL GEOLOGIC NOTES 39 

1. Beneath the Pampean is an ancient land surface which was 
formerly a plain or nearly so, it having been long subjected to ero- 
sion. The plain subsided and became covered with the alluvium 
of rivers which brought silt from the north and especially from the 
west. The rate of subsidence and the rate of sedimentation were 
related to one another somewhat as they now are in the Mississippi 
embayment, so that the surface of the river deposits remained 
above sea level although the mass was sinking. Marine deposits, 
therefore, do not enter the area. 

2. The alluvial deposits constitute what is now called the Pam- 
pean terrane. They resemble th^ deposits which are made by the 
Hwang River in the delta plains of eastern China, and which consist 
of eolian loess redistributed b}^ river action. The loess of China 
originates in the deserts of central Asia, and by inference the Pampean 
earths originated under similar arid conditions. The lands to the 
east of the Andes now have an arid climate because the high moun- 
tains dry out the western winds. If this hypothesis of the origin 
of the Pampean earths be valid there is a relation between the Pam- 
pean and the Cordillera, since the elevation of the Cordillera was 
required to establish the genetic conditions for the production of the 
loess that was subsequently deposited as the alluvium of the Pampean 
terrane. By this hypothesis it seems probable that most of the 
Pampean is of late Tertiary age, but there is nothing in the process 
of deposition which precludes Quaternary age for the later part of 
the formation. 

3. During the deposition of the Pampean terrane eolian processes 
involving erosion and redeposition were certainly active. They 
appear to have been particularly active at certain epochs which 
alternated with others of dominant fluviatile action. This alterna- 
tion may have been local and have occurred in different places at 
different times, but the phenomena as they are displayed in the 
sections on the eastern coast of Argentina suggest that there were 
one or more epochs when wind erosion prevailed over a wide area 
and was favored by some special climatic condition, such as aridity. 
The deposition of secondary limestone appears also to indicate 
climatic variation, and the two lines of evidence — wind erosion and 
limestone deposition — appear to coincide in their indications. Hence 
it is inferred that Pampean history has been varied by climatic 
change, and it is suggested that the ultimate subdivision of the 
Pampean terrane into distinct formations will be based on climatic 
variation. The writer has not formed any opinion as to the rela- 
tions which might exist between such a classification and any of 
those which may have been published. It would seem probable, 
however, that no attempt to classify the Pampean terrane, a mass 
of lenticular alluvial deposits produced by several rivers, according 



40 BUREAU OP AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

to the methods that apply to more uniform marine strata, could 
be successful. 

4. The criteria by which the several more or less theoretic 
divisions of the Pampean have been distinguished are primarily 
lithologic — composition, texture, compactness, structure, and the 
proportion of secondary limestone or tosca. The differences in these 
characters are not marked. At first the writer did not easily recog- 
nize them. Eventually he saw them without difficulty, but he did 
not learn to rely on them as a means of classification. It seemed 
to him that local conditions affecting the source of the material 
and the character of the deposit might be more influential than 
the greater or less age of the formation. It was apparent in clearly 
exposed sections that deposits of distinct epochs might occur in 
the same plane in close proximity or in contact with one another. 
Sections are few and the distances between them are great. Under 
these conditions the subclassihcation of the Pampean is a problem 
of extreme difficulty, in which there is great liability to error. 

5. If we turn from the physical to the paleontologic criteria as a 
means of classification, we are confronted with the fact that the 
sequence of faunas can be determined with certainty only when 
we know the sequence of formations. But, inasmuch as we do not 
surely know the succession of Pampean formations, we can not have 
confidence in any theoretic development of faunas. There is urgent 
need in this matter to withhold judgment and to preserve a conserva- 
tive attitude of agnosticism in regard to the relative age of hypo- 
thetic divisions of the Pampean terrane and the supposedly distinct 
faunas. 

6. Among the divisions of the Pampean which have been proposed 
the distinction between the Upper Pampean and all older formations 
of the terrane seems to be one of the safest. In many places there is 
a distinct unconformity beneath the deposits of the Upper Pampean, 
which is a result of uplift and erosion. Elsewhere there is entire 
conformity, as, for instance, at San Lorenzo on the Parana, and 
apparently continuous deposition from the older Pampean up into 
loess deposits of the Upper Pampean type. This is not surprising, 
for the surface of the pampas is now and has been in the past suffi- 
ciently warped to bring about conditions of erosion in one. locality 
concurrently with those of continuous deposition in another. The 
Upper Pampean is identified lithologically as an eolian loess. It is 
eolian not only in texture and structure but also in distribution, and 
occurs generally in drifted deposits rather than as a widespread 
stratum. The conditions for its formation may have been peculiarly 
favorable during some recent epoch of aridity, and if so the formation 
would acquire a certain unity and individuality. But the writer is 
satisfied that not all of the irregularities of the surface which gave 



willis] GENERAL GEOLOGIC NOTES 41 

rise to wind eddies, nor all of the loess drifts that accumulated in 
them, can be assigned to a single epoch. He believes that the deposi- 
tion of various local deposits of the Upper Pampean type has been 
distributed over a considerable interval of time and is still going on. 
If so, fossil remains found in them may be similarly distributed. 

7. Although the pampas may be described as elevated plains, they 
have suffered but very little erosion. The development of valleys 
is in an incipient stage. There are extensive areas which are not 
drained by streams, and the characteristic topographic form is a 
shallow wind-scooped hollow. The flatness of the surface and the 
meagerness of the rainfall undoubtedly retard the growth of erosion 
channels, but the Pampean loess is easily eroded and can not long 
have been exposed at the elevation and with the slopes which it now 
exhibits, without dissection. Hence it is inferred that the elevation 
is a result of recent warping. Some of the Upper Pampean deposits 
occur in the incipient valleys tributary to the Parana. The valleys 
are consequent on the slope due to elevation, and are therefore 
younger, and the Upper Pampean drifted into the valleys is younger 
still. 

8. The coast of Argentina presents a line of sea cliffs and beaches 
which are being vigorously attacked and are in process of constant 
changes. The sea is constantly eroding the land, and the coast line is 
geologically a very transient feature. It must shift from century to 
century to a perceptible degree and can not have occupied its present 
position at most more than a few thousand years. Upon this shifting 
shore the winds and waves have built certain equally temporary 
formations, among which the dunes are the most conspicuous and the 
coquina is the most interesting, at least in the study of man's supposed 
antiquity. The physical evidence of the relation of the dunes and 
the coquina to the recent coast line is definite and positive. Those 
formations are as recent as the coast line is, and any organic remains 
found in them, whether human or otherwise, or any artifacts which 
they contain as contemporaneous deposits, must also be recent. The 
only exception to this conclusion is found in the possibility that 
fossils weathered out of older formations may become incorporated 
in the younger. 

Report on Shells Collected by Bailey Willis and A. Hrdlicka 

in Argentina 

By Wm. H. Dall 
Geologist and Paleontologist, U. S. Geological Survey 

The following is my report on the shells brought [by Dr. Hrdlicka 
and Mr. Willis] from Argentina and submitted to me for de- 
termination. The age of the various beds from which the speci- 



42 



BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 



[bull. 52 



mens come is difficult to estimate, as the shells prove to be all of 
recent species, that is, species still having, so far as known, living 
representatives. There is one specimen without label, and it proves 
to be the only one carrying an extinct species. f 1 ] 
Detailed notes: 



U.S. 
Current National 
numbers Museum 
numbers 



Locality 



Observations 



5352 



5355 



10 



29 



13 



Arroyo del Bareo, south of Mar del 
Plata, Argentina, May 31, 1910. 



Mar del Plata, Pta Piedras, southeast 
side ("Inter-Ensenadean"). 

Punta Porvenir, south of Mar del Plata 
(typical "Inter-Ensenadean"). 

Mar del Plata, 8 miles south of the city, 
on the plain back of the seabeach, 
southwest of Pta Mogote, May 25, 
1910. 

Los Palos, La Plata 



5357 



53G3 



Arroyo del Barco, south of Mar del 
Plata ("Inter-Ensenadean"), May 
31, 1910. 

Mar del Plata, north side H. W. ("In- 
ter-Ensenadean"). 

Mar del Plata, north of mouth of Ar- 
royo de Peralta, May 25, 1910, H. W. 

South of Mar del Plata, on the southern 
side of Pta Mogote, about one-half 
mile from the lighthouse, May 26, 
1910. 

Mar del Plata, Argentina, 8 miles south 
of city, at Punta Mogote. 



Miramar, sea level coast \ mile south 
of the bathing houses; shell marl of 
fresh-water lake, supposed by Ame- 
ghino to be Lujanean, June 1. 



Lake deposit from mouth 
Quequen. 



of Rio 



Necochea, plain by the sea, 25 feet 

above high tide, June 5, 1910. 
"Inter-Ensenadean," Boca del Moro, 
northeast of Necochea. 

i Label lost during transportation; specimen from the coast, but the exact locality can not be ascer- 
tained. — A. H. 



The shells in this lot comprise Glycymeris 
longior Sowerby, Eutivela perplexa 
Stearns, and Olivancillaria auricularia 
Lamarck, all recent species. 

Mactra patagonica and Orbigny and 
Glycymeris longior Sby. 

Glycymeris longior Sby. 

Indurated beach gravel containing frag- 
ments and worn valves of Glycymeris 
longior Sby., and Mactra patagonica 
Orb., later bored by Lithophaga and 
perhaps other boring bivalves. 

Loose sand with valves of Mulinia isa- 
bellcana Orb., Venus tchuelca Orb., 
Tagclus platensis Orb.; Petricula sp., 
Paludestrina sp., Columbella sp., and 
Buccinanops gradata Desh. 

Similar to the last but indurated, the 
fragments somewhat larger and many 
of them derived from sessile barnacles. 

Glycymeris longior Sby. 

Venerid shell, decorticated but resem- 
bling Venus tehuelca Orbigny, now 
living. 

Worn valves and fragments of Glycymeris 
longior Sby. 



Blackish sand and earth with a few 
minute apparently recent land shells 
Succinea and Tliijsanoplwra (?),some of 
them quite fresh. 

Myriads of a single species Paludestrina, 
which agrees with figures of description 
of P. parchappii Orb., which that 
author states inhabits nearly all the 
streams and lakes of Argentina. 

Paludestrina sp. and Bulimulus sp. both 
probably recent, but perhaps unde- 
scribed. 

Loose sand containing minute worn frag- 
ments of shells, probably bivalves. 

Tegula corrugata Koch ( Tcgula patagonica 
Orb.). 



WILLIS] 



GENERAL GEOLOGIC NOTES 



43 



Current 
numbers 


U. S. 
National 
Museum 
numbers 


Locality 


Observations 


14 


5364 


"Magdalena" (Necochea) 


Indurated shell fragments of Venus 
tehuelca, young Mulinia sp., Palude- 














slrina sp., probably estuarine assembly. 


15 


5365 


Terreno Guerrico, from black earth- 
above tosca. (Necochea). 


Valve Glycymeris longior Sby. 


16 


5366 


Mouth of Rio Quequen, Necochea, 
from barranca said by Ameghino to 
be Ensenadean, more than 1 meter 
below considerable, irregular layer of 
tosca. 


Bulimulus sp. (recent). 


17 


5367 


No label 


Indurated calcareous sediment contain- 






ing valves of the extinct Erodona (or 








Azara) prisca von Martens; probably 








Pleistocene. 


18 




Coast 25 miles north of Necochea, near 
the beach; so-called Eolian phase of 


No shells; loess well indurated, with 






scattered water- worn pebbles; many 






"Inter-Ensenadean" of Ameghino, 


root holes. 






from beneath heavy layers of tosca; 








at first identified by Ameghino as 








"Ensenadean," but distinguished 








by black sand grains. 




19 


5368 


Mouth of Rio Quequen, Necochea, 


Looks like loess but shows no root holes; 






fresh-water deposit forming barranca 


no shells. 






on north side, June 9, 1910. 




20 




Coast 25 miles north of Necochea, bluff 
5 feet above beach; loess of the 


No shells; indurated fine white sand 






with numerous root holes. 






"Ensenadean" of Ameghino from 








just below that called "Inter-Ensena- 








dean" (contact not seen). 




21 




Necochea, Argentina; plain by the sea, 
25 feet above high, tide, 200 yards 


No shells; material like the last. 












southwest of hotel; superficial harder 








layer of "Inter-Ensenadean" forma- 








tion beneath which the human skele- 








tons were said to have been found, 








selected by the man who dug up the 








skeletons. 




22 


5369 


Coast 25 miles north of Necochea near 


Contains a fragment of Glycymeris longior 






Laguna Malacara; sand with shell 


Sby. 






from digging near the hole where 








skeletons were found in same mate- 








rial, June 7, 1910. 




23 


5370 


Coast 25 miles north of Necochea, near 


Considerably bored by marine worms or 






Laguna Malacara near beach; so- 


Cliona; contains Tegula corrugata Koch, 






called "marine Inter-Ensenadean' - 


and fragments of other shells. 






of Ameghino; hard coquina. 




24 




Coast 25 miles north of Necochea, near 
the beach; tosca from "Inter- 


No shells. 












Ensenadean," June 8, 1910. 




25 




Coast 25 miles north of Necochea, 15 
feet above beach; so-called "marine 


Do. 












Inter-Ensenadean; " coarse sand, cal- 








careous cement holding larger 








tosca pebbles. 





44 



BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 



[bull. 52 



Current 
numbers 


U. S. 
National 
Museum 
numbers 


Locality 


Observations 


26 




Necochea; plain by the sea 25 feet 
above high water, 200 yards west of 
hotel; tosca in recent sand, same as 
last material, June 5, 1910. 

Necochea, Argentina; plain by the sea 
25 feet above high tide, 200 yards 
west of Necochea Hotel; selected by 
Ameghinoas "typical Inter-Ensena- 
dean," June 5, 1910. 




31 










barnacles, and unrecognizable shell 
sand. 



As already noted, the only sample containing a species not now 
living (so far as known) in the region is No. 17. 



IV. TIERRA COCIDA; SCORLE 



By Bailey Willis 



Tierra cocida, or burnt earth, occurs in the Pampean terrane at 
various horizons, as shown by the researches of Ameghino, Roth, and 
others. The material resembles brick, or in places scoria, and 
occurs commonly in the form of small pebbles. Occasionally larger 
masses have been found. Ameghino has described the tierra cocida 
with accuracy and in great detail. Through his courtesy the writer 
has been able to verify the descriptions by examination of the original 
specimens, which form part of the collections of the Museo Nacional 
at Buenos Aires. 

The burnt earth varies in character and color from brown or fawn- 
colored loess, through various tints of pink or brick to dark iridescent 
or black scoria. Some specimens are of close texture, like a fine- 
grained brick, but the scoriaceous specimens are very porous. It 
occasionally contains impressions of strongly ribbed grasses, and in 
rare instances includes bits of carbonized grass stems, little bones, 
and other things of organic origin. There are also specimens which 
are distinguished by a dark color and slaggy appearance. These 
are heavy, though scoriaceous, resemble volcanic scoria, and have 
been described as such. They have been found mainly on the coast 
of the Province of Buenos Aires, where volcanic scoria may occur 
as wash brought along the coast from tuffs in the territory of Rio 
Negro. It is important in considering their character and origin 
to distinguish between those which are washed up on the beach 
and those which occur in the Pampean terrane, as will appear 
presently. 

The writer collected specimens of the so-called tierra cocida in 
company with Doctor Ameghino and Doctor Hrdlicka on the eastern 
coast, with Roth at Saladillo near Rosario, and alone in the delta 
of the Rio Colorado south of Bahia Blanca. The last-mentioned 
occurrence is modern, while the others pertain to the Pampean ter- 
rane. Brief descriptions of the observations made in the course of 
this work will be found in the following pages. 

On visiting Saladillo with Doctor Roth, a section of the dark-brown 
loess loam, which Roth classed as Upper Pampean, was found 

45 



46 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

exposed by the little Rio Saladillo where it issues from a small 
reservoir. Thirty to forty meters from the reservoir and close to 
the stream is a layer 30 cm. thick, composed of the brown earth 
with many little pebbles the size of a pea, more or less. Most of 
these consist of secondary limestone or tosca, but pebbles of burnt 
earth are not uncommon. They are precisely like little water- 
worn fragments of brick. On following this horizon down the 
valley, other bits of burnt earth were found, including one 2 cm. to 
3 cm. in diameter. All of these were imbedded in the Pampean 
earth. They exhibited no impressions and contained no inclusions 
which might give a clue to their origin. 

On the eastern coast, near Miramar, the sea cliff affords a section 
of the Pampean terrane, in which Ameghino identifies two forma- 
tions, the upper one of which he calls Ensenadean and the lower 
one Chapalmalean. The latter is a brown ferruginous loess-loam 
and forms the lower part of the bluffs. In it, at a height of 1 meter 
above the beach, 8 kilometers north of Miramar, occurs a mass of 
distinctly reddish, orange, and blackish earth, not bricklike, which 
contrasts with the surrounding brown loess-loam. Its horizontal 
length is about 1 meter; its thickness is 30 cm. The upper surface 
is irregular and there are small isolated masses of the red surrounded 
by the brown clay. The principal mass of red clay is 60 cm. long 
and 10 cm. thick. It is banded in various shades of red. At the 
bottom it is distinguished by a sharp contact, where it passes in 
the distance of approximately a millimeter from the red into a 
larger, dark-brown and black mass that fades away below into the 
brown loess. 

The red earth is a portion of the loess loam, which has been dehy- 
drated. The darker brown color is also due, in all probability, to 
a peculiar condition of the iron oxide. The black, which occurs 
chiefly, if not exclusively, on joint planes in the clay, is caused by a 
film of specular iron oxide. 

This coloring might have been occasioned by a fire burning on 
the surface that is now red. Similar effects of dehydration occur, 
however, not infrequently as a result of a slow process of chemical 
change, without heat, producing more or less distinct ferruginous 
nodules. Fine ferruginous clays in which capillary moisture circu- 
lates are favorable to the reaction. This is undoubtedly the expla- 
nation of the particular occurrence observed in the Chapalmalean 
north of Miramar. 

In contrast to the preceding fogon, which the writer does not 
class with the tierra cocida, there are certain specimens found 
somewhat nearer Miramar, but also in Pampean terrane — whether 
in that portion which Ameghino would class as Chapalmalean or as 
Ensenadean, the writer is not sure. The specimens are small pieces of 



willis] TIERRA COCIDA; SCORLE. 47 

red tierra cocida, and distinct masses of heavy black scoriae ranging up 
to 8 or 10 cm. in diameter. The latter resemble an opaque slag, im- 
perfectly fused, and cooled from a pasty state into irregular individual 
lumps. Each specimen of the four that were gathered was complete 
in itself, not a fragment of a larger mass. They occurred imbedded in 
homogeneous loess, in which they were in place, like pebbles in shale. 
Judging from their general appearance that they might be of volcanic 
origin, the writer carefully noted that they were not washed up on 
the beach and buried in a recent deposit of the loess. They occurred 
in the undisturbed Pampean, and if they were volcanic would dem- 
onstrate that scoria of appropriate character had existed in a place 
from which these masses could have reached their present position. 
According to Mr. Cross, whose opinion is quoted below, they are 
probably not volcanic. This inference therefore fails but it is still 
possible that scorise of volcanic origin should be found in this locality, 
as they occur along the same coast farther south, and tuffs and 
basalts cover a large area in the territory of Rio Negro near the 
Colonia Valcheta and elsewhere, as observed by Senor Moreno in 
1873-74. Masses so derived and washed along the coast would 
occur only in modern formations, for the present coast is modern. 
During the Pampean epoch the shore was farther east and the 
coastal wash could not have reached this position. Hence the 
importance, above referred to, of distinguishing the precise relations 
in which any such supposed volcanic scoria occurs. 

Mr. Whitman Cross, of the United States Geological Survey, reports 
as follows on the specimens collected from this locality near Miramar 
and submitted to him: 

"Among the explanations of the occurrence of 'tierra cocida' in 
the Pampean is one advanced by early writers, as quoted by Ame- 
ghino, to the effect that burning grasses had calcined and fused the 
loess. To investigate this suggestion the writer burned several 
heads of the great Pampas grass or cortadera, both growing and dead. 
The growing tussocks consist in the winter season of a large, almost 
solid head, winch is green, and of dried leaves. The latter burn 
readily down to the green head, but the fire does not reach the ground. 
When cortadera is dead the head also burns and the fire lasts a num- 
ber of hours. A large plant, fired at 5 o'clock of an afternoon, was 
still a glowing mass at 7 the next morning. The effect on the under- 
lying earth was, however, slight. The loess was reddened to a depth 
of 10 millimeters, more or less. It was not calcined to a brieklike or 
scoriaceous mass. The ground was dry at the time. The fire had 
been intense and had burned 14 hours. It had, however, been prac- 
tically on the surface, and the writer infers that superficial heat does 
not notably calcine loess." 



48 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

A different result follows when the grass and loess are intimately 
mingled. Esparto is a grass which sends up blades from root-stocks 
below the surface. The blades grow close together, catch more or 
less dust between the stems, and become partly buried to a depth 
depending on local conditions, perhaps 10 or 15 cm. or more. When 
esparto burns, the loess about the grass stems is calcined down to 
and around the roots below the surface of the plain. The writer 
observed an instance in the delta of the Rio Colorado. A bright- 
red spot in the greenish-brown plain attracted attention. On riding 
to it, it was found to be an area a hundred meters more or less in 
diameter, where the esparto, which grew in tufts all about, had re- 
cently been burnt. The stems and roots were burned out, leaving a 
spongy mass in which a horse sank to his fetlocks. It was composed 
of thoroughly calcined earth, varying in color from pink to brick- 
red, in part scoriaceous. Coherent masses 10 cm. or more in diameter 
could be picked up, but they were penetrated in every direction by 
hollows formerly filled by the stems and roots, and were very fragile. 
They carried impressions of grass stems, bits of carbonized grass, 
etc., and in these respects corresponded with specimens obtained from 
the Pampean by Doctor Ameghino and described by him. 

These observations lead the writer to give weight to the views 
of those early observers, who attributed the tierra cocida of the 
Pampean terrane to the burning of grasses. 

There is nothing, however, to connect the burnt earths of the 
Pampean with man, so far as the occurrences were observed by the 
writer. Any fire whatever, whether originating in spontaneous 
combustion, in lightning, or in other natural conditions, independent 
of man, would have the effect of burning the earth under favorable 
conditions. In order to prove that man maintained a fire which 
burned a particular mass of tierra cocida it would be necessary to 
bring independent evidence of his handiwork. Two classes of facts 
have been cited to demonstrate his agency : The presence of supposed 
artifacts and the arrangement of a mass of burnt clay; chief among 
the former are split, broken, or scratched fragments of bone, and 
it appears to the writer that these may be referred, with greater 
probability, to weathering, biting, gnawing, and accidents incident 
to the wanderings of bones, as strata were eroded and redeposited. 
Certainly the proofs of man's agency should be uncontrovertible and 
the possibility of explanation by other than human action should be 
positively excluded, before the conclusion that he intentionally or 
incidentally burned the earth can be accepted. 

This critical test should be met equally by occurrences where the 
mass of burnt earth and its relations to the surrounding unburnt 
loess suggest that man built and maintained a fire over the spot. 



willis] TIERRA COCIDA; SCORIA 49 

Dehydration by slow chemical change produces a red mass, which 
may grade by color variation into the brown loess, simulating the 
effect of heat. But the red earth thus produced is not hard like 
brick. The occurrence observed 8 kilometers north of Miramar is a 
case in point. If an unquestionably burnt earth should occur in 
place in the Pampean in a notable mass, it would be necessary to 
prove that man gathered the fuel and maintained the fire, for the 
accidental burning of matted vegetation buried in the earth would 
produce the same effect. The hills of Dakota and Montana in the 
western United States are banded by red clays burnt to the consist- 
ency of tile by the combustion of lignite beds, without the agency 
of man, and what occurs in that region on an extensive scale may 
well have taken place on the pampas from the combustion of matted 
masses of grass. 

The specimens of tierra cocida and scoria collected by the writer 
and Doctor Hrdlicka have been submitted to the Geophysical Labo- 
ratory of the Carnegie Institution of Washington for an exhaustive 
investigation of their physical characters and conditions of origin, 
which Mr. F. E. Wright of that laboratory has kindly agreed to make. 
His report on the subject will doubtless form the basis for further 
discussion. 

Notes by Ales Hrdlicka 

The writer has recorded a number of personal observations on the 
subject of the tierra cocida which will serve to supplement the 
preceding. 

The present coast of the Province of Buenos Aires, north of Bahia 
Blanca, is devoid of forests, and very poor in wood of any kind, nor 
are there any indications that it was more favored in this respect at 
any time during the formation of the Pampean deposits. In conse- 
quence it is probable that there has been always a dearth of fuel. 
This doubtless led to the habit, common in the region to this day, of 
making fire, where it could be made at all, in small, usually quadran- 
gular excavations in the ground, about 4 to 8 inches deep. A number 
of these holes were examined by the writer. The ground lining the 
hole was generally found blackened, and where the heat had been 
more intense, there was some reddening of the earth beyond the black- 
ened surface; but both the blackened and the reddened soil (where the 
latter existed) crumbled readily in every instance, showing but little, 
if any, cohesion. Nothing was found even remotely resembling Pam- 
pean tierra cocida specimens thought by some to demonstrate the 
presence of man. In one instance, at the Laguna de los Padres, some 
miles inland from Mar del Plata, the remnants of two particularly large 
21535°— Bull. 52—12 i 



50 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

and intense fires were observed which had been fed, as seen from the 
unburned pieces, by large quantities of dried branches of the hard, 
thorny brush growing in that locality. One of these fires was on the 
surface and represented merely the burning of a pile of brush; the 
other, probably remade a number of times, was in and about a hole 
in the ground, such as described above, and filled with ashes and 
bones. Fires of this size are exceptional, and it is in the highest 
degree improbable that they would ever have been equaled among 
the aborigines; yet even here there was no approach to a production 
of tierra cocida, or scoria. The surface fire acted on the black veg- 
etal soil; that in the hole principally on the yellowish loess. In 
both cases there was superficial blackening, and beyond this some 
obscure reddening of the soil to a maximum depth of approximately 
1| inches, but no baking to cohesion. All this indicates the improba- 
bility, if not the impossibility, of the production by the fires of prim- 
itive man of the tierra cocida, or of scoriae, such as were seen in the 
Argentine museums or were collected on the expedition. 

A variety of stout grass, growing in big bunches and known, from the 
sharp, cutting edges of its blades, as paja brava or cortadera (Gynerium 
argenteum) occurs in many localities in Argentina. The burning of this 
grass has been reported by Descalzi, Romero, and Ameghino (see 
Bibliography) as resulting in the production of baked earth and 
scoria. During the writer's trip to the Puerto San Bias, this grass 
was found in spots among the dunes south of San Bias, and instances 
were seen in which the dried bunches had been burned. In every 
one of these cases, however, the heart of the bunch was still alive 
and there was no burned earth or scoria. Men on the ground said 
that only rarely will one of these bunches die, in which case, if fired, 
it burns out; but no one has observed anything resembling the 
tierra cocida or scoriae ascribed to them. This shows that the ordi- 
nary burning of cortadera is not (at least not commonly) asso- 
ciated with products such as those under consideration. 

Small particles, and occasionally larger masses of tierra cocida, 
were found by Mr. Willis or the writer in a number of localities along 
the coast from northeast of Miramar to Monte Hermoso, and were 
relatively abundant in the deposits exposed in the barrancas at the 
former locality. They occur at different depths from the surface, to 
below the sea level at ordinary low tide. The pieces collected are 
all compact, with the exception of two or three that show on one side 
a transition to scoria. While there is a general resemblance, they 
all differ in aspect and weight from the very porous, light products 
of the burning of the esparto grass, collected by Mr. Willis on the 
Colorado. 

Large masses of tierra cocida are called fogones (fireplaces) by the 
local investigators. One of these, about 3 paces long and propor- 



Willis] TIERRA OOCIDA; SCORIA 51 

tionately broad, was reported by one of the natives employed by 
Professor Ameghino for watching the coast and collecting fossils, to 
exist off the barranca of Monte Hermoso, but it became exposed 
only at the lowest tide and could not be examined. None of the 
few observed cases in which the tierra cocida would be taken for a 
fogon, or remnants of the same, was accompanied by the slightest 
evidences of the presence of man; but burnt bones, carbon, and other 
substances that might possibly be due to man have been reported as 
found at or near fogones in other localities. 1 

The scoriae were very abundant on the gray playas, or denuded 
flats, near the seashore northeast of the Arroyo Moro, the region 
of Necochea. Farther inland, even on the playas, they were absent. 
Many hundreds, in fact thousands, of specimens could have been 
collected. They were fairly uniform in character, grayish-black, 
porous, without sharp points or angles. They ranged in size, as far 
as seen, from small bits to pieces as large as the two fists. Farther 
south they were scarce, and on the coast between Rio Negro and 
Puerto San Bias they were wholly absent, but the writer picked up 
on the shore near San Bias an oval, water-worn piece of a different, 
clearly volcanic red scoria more than 12 inches long. 

On the whole, none of the evidence relating to tierra cocida and 
scoriae seen in the Argentine Museums or in the field, has proven at all 
convincing that these products, even if not directly volcanic, are due 
to man's agency. Messrs. Wright and Fenner's report, which fol- 
lows, bears out these impressions. 

The principal bibliographical references in connection with this 
subject are as follows: 2 

Desoalzi, N. Diario del descubrimiento del Rio Negro de Pat- 
agones. Revista del Rio de la Plata, i, 1854, p. 97; and in Albar- 
racin, S. J., Estudios generales sobre los rios Negro, etc., n, Buenos 
Aires, 1886, pp. 51, 63-64, 600-602. 

Heusser, J. C, and G. Claraz. Essais pour servir a une descrip- 
tion physique et geognostique de la Province Argentine de Buenos- 
Aires. Mem. Soc. Helvetique Sci. nat., xxi, Zurich, 1865, pp. 1-140. 

Ameghino, F. Nouveaux debris de l'homme et de son Industrie, 
etc. Journal de Zoologie, iv, Paris, 1875, pp. 527-528. 

Burmeister, H. Description physique de la Republique Argen- 
tine, ii, Buenos Aires, 1876, pp. 178, 387. 

Ameghino, F. Catalogue special de la section anthropologique 
et paleontdlogique de la Republique Argentine, Paris, 1878. 

1 See Ameghino, F., Enumeration chronologique et critique des notices sur les terres cuites et les scories 
anthropiques, etc.; in Anal. Mus. Nac. Buenos Aires, xx (ser. iii, t. xni), 1911, pp. 39-80 (separate, 1910). 
2 Principally after Ameghino. For additional minor references, see that author. 



52 BUREAU OE AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

Ameghino, F. L'homme prehistorique dans le bassin de La Plata. 
Congr. int. sci. anthr., Paris, 1878, p. 346. 

L'homme prehistorique dans La Plata. Rev. d' Anthr., 

2 me ser., ii, Paris, 1879, pp. 242-245. 

La plus haute antiquite de l'homme dans le Nouveau- 

Monde. C. R. Congr. int. Amer. 3 me sess., Bruxelles, 1879, n, pp. 
216-217. 

La antigiiedad del hombre en El Plata, Paris-Buenos 

Aires, n, 1881, pp. 427-428, 451, 461, 476-478, 489-490, 535. 

— — — Escursiones geologicas y paleontologicas en la provincia 
de Buenos Aires. Bol. Acad. Nac. Cienc. Cordoba, vi, Buenos Aires, 
1884, p. 161 et seq. 

Monte Hermoso, Buenos Aires, 1887, pp. 5-6, 10. 

Moreno, F. P. Informe preliminar de los progresos del Museo 
La Plata, etc., Buenos Aires, 1888, pp. 6-7. 

Breve resefia de los progresos del Museo de La Plata, 

etc., Buenos Aires, 1889, p. 27. 

Ameghino, F. Contribucion al conocimiento de los mamiferos 
fosiles de la Republica Argentina, 2 vols., Buenos Aires, 1889, pp. 
50-69. 

Roth, S. Ueber den Schadel von Pontimelo (richtiger Fonte- 
zuelas). Mitth. anat. Inst. Vesalianum zu Basel, 1889, pp. 8-9. 

Lehmann-Nitsche, R. L'homme fossile de la formation pamp<3- 
enne. C. R. Congr. int. d' anthr. et d'arch. prehist., xii sess., Paris, 
1900, pp. 145-146. 

Ameghino, F. Paleontologia Argentina, Buenos Aires, 1904, p. 77. 

Steinmann, G. Ueber Diluvium in Sud-Amerika. Monatsb. 
deutschen geol. Ges., No. 7, 1906; also in Rev. gen. sci. pur. et appl., 
Paris, 1907, pp. 626-633. 

Steinmann, G. Das Alter des Menschen in Argentinien. Bericht 
iiber die prahistorischer Versammlung zur Eroffnung des Anthro- 
pologischen Museums in Coin, 1907, p. 73. 

Lehmann-Nitsche, R. Nouvelles recherches sur la formation 
pampeenne, etc. Rev. Mus. La Plata, xiv, Buenos Aires, 1907; 
including communications by C. Burckhardt, pp. 143-171; A. Doer- 
ing, pp. 172-190; F. Zirkel, pp. 455-456; and G. Steinmann, pp. 
461-462. 

Ameghino, F. Notas preliminares sobre el Tetraprothomo argen- 
tinus, etc. Anal. Mus. Nac. Buenos Aires, xvi (ser. iii, t. ix), 1908, 
pp. 106-107. 

Outes, F. F., with E. H. Ducloux and H. Bucking. Estudio de 
las supuestas "escorias" y "tierras cocidas," etc. Rev. Mus. La 
Plata, xv, Buenos Aires, 1908, pp. 138-197. 

Ameghino, F. Las formaciones sedimentarias de la region litoral 
de Mar del Plata y Chapalmalan. Anal. Mus. Nac. Buenos Aires, 
xvii (ser. iii, t. x), 1909, pp. 358, 372, 401, 421. 



willis] TIERRA COCIDA; SCORIAE 53 

Ameghino, F. Productos piricos de origen antropico, etc. Anal. 
Mus. Nac. Buenos Aires, xix (ser. iii, t. xn), 1909, pp. 1-25. 

Outes, F. F. Les scories volcaniques et les tufs eruptifs de la serie 
pampeenne de la Republique Argentine. Rev. Mus. La Plata, xvi, 
Buenos Aires, 1909, pp. 34-36. 

Ameghino, F. Le litige des scories et des terres cuites anthropi- 
ques, etc., Buenos Ayres, 1909, pp. 1-12. 

Dos doeumentos testimonials a proposito de las escorias 

producidas por la combustion de los cortaderales. Anal. Mus. Nac. 
Buenos Aires, xix (ser. iii, t. xn), 1909, pp. 71-80. 

Boule, M. Produits pyriques d'origine anthropique dans les for- 
mations neogenes de la Republique Argentine. L'Anthropologie, xx, 
Nos. 3-4, Paris, 1909, pp. 381-383. 

Arldt, Th. Feuerproducte von menschlichem Ursprunge in den 
neogenen Formationen der Argentinischen Republik. C. R. Natur- 
wissenschaftliche Rundschau, xxiv, No. 31, Braunschweig, 1909, p. 
397. 

G. A. J. C. The Antiquity of Man in South America. Nature, 
lxxxi, London, 1909, p. 534. 

Brunet, L. fitude des pretendues scories et terres cuites de la 
serie pampeenne de la Republique Argentine. Analyse du memoire 
de MM. Outes, Herrero Ducloux et Bucking, en Revue Generale des 
Sciences pures et appliquees, 20 e annee, No. 21, Paris, 1909, p. 890. 

Ameghino, F. Examen critique du memoire de M. Outes sur les 
scories et les terres cuites. Anal. Mus. Nac. Buenos Aires, xix (ser. iii, 
t. xn), 1909, p. 459. 

Outes, F. F., and H. Bucking. Sur la structure des scories et 
" terres cuites" trouvees dans la serie pampeenne. Rev. Mus. La 
Plata, Buenos Aires, xvn, 1910-11, pp. 78-85. 

Ameghino, F. Enumeration chronologique et critique des notices 
sur les terres cuites et les scories anthropiques des terrains sedimen- 
taires neogenes de F Argentine. Anal. Mus. Nac. Buenos Aires, xx 
(ser. iii, t. xiii), 1911, pp. 39-80 (separate, 1910). 



V. PETROGRAPHIC STUDY 

of the Specimens of Loess, Tierra Cocida, and Scoria Col- 
lected BY THE HRDLICKA-WlLLIS EXPEDITION 



By Fred. Eugene Wright and Clarence N, Fenner 



Introduction 



The petrographic examination of the rock specimens collected by 
the Hrdlicka- Willis expedition in Argentina was undertaken by the 
Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, 
at the request of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. 
Although descriptive work of this kind is hardly germane to the 
purposes of the Geophysical Laboratory, it was apparent that, if 
the problem were "to be solved at all, exact laboratory methods of 
attack would have to be used and that, even in case the material 
available was not sufficient or characteristic enough for a satisfactory 
solution, the precise data gathered by the laboratory would never- 
theless be of value. The descriptions below apply only to the 
material examined. 

The problem submitted to the laboratory was to determine the 
kinds and nature of the rocks in the collection. Ordinarily such 
problems are not difficult and can be solved by the usual petro- 
graphic methods, but in the present instance several of the rocks 
are so extraordinary in type that previous investigators have been 
unable to agree as to their nature, whether volcanic, or sedimentary, 
or both, and the matter has become one of controversy based more 
or less on opinion. 

In approaching this problem, three lines of attack were followed: 
(1) the usual detailed petrographic-microscopic examination of the 
rocks; (2) chemical study of the different rock types; (3) thermal 
study of the rocks at different temperatures and comparison of the 
products thus obtained, with the natural products. From these 
three lines of independent evidence which will now be presented, 
it should be possible to obtain a fair idea of the nature of the rocks 
and possibly also of their genesis. 

The tools and methods used in the examination of the different speci- 
mens. — Ordinarily it is not customary to cite the particular instru- 

55 



56 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

ments and methods which have been adopted in the study of any 
particular problem, but in the present instance the methods applied 
were not the usual methods and merit, therefore, a brief word of 
description. In the petrographic-microscopic examinations the 
methods employed were those specially adapted to the study of 
fine-grained preparations. They have recently been described in 
a paper by one of the writers * and need not be considered in detail 
here. The specimens were examined both in the thin section and 
in powder form. In the thin section the texture of a specimen 
can be studied to best advantage, while in the powder the optical 
properties of its several mineral components can be ascertained 
most readily and accurately; 

The chemical analyses cited below were made by Mr. J. G. Fair- 
child, of the United States Geological Survey, and the methods used 
in his determinations were the standard methods of the Geological 
Survey laboratory. 

In the thermal work the standard thermo-electric apparatus and 
methods of the Geophysical • Laboratory 2 were adopted. The mate- 
rial to be heated was placed in a platinum crucible and suspended 
therein in an electric resistance furnace where it could be brought 
to any desired temperature and held there for any length of time. 
The temperature of the furnace was determined by means of a 
platinum-rhodium thermoelement inserted into the furnace together 
with the charge. This method for ascertaining high temperatures 
has been thoroughly tested in the Geophysical Laboratory and 
furnishes temperature readings whose probable error is not more than 
2° C. Throughout this paper the temperatures are expressed in 
degrees centigrade. 

In the present series of experiments the conditions were varied 
considerably, but not to extremes which departed widely from 
natural conditions. One point of difference, however, should be 
noted. The amount of material used in an experiment was small, 
only a few grams at most, while in nature kilograms and usually 
tons are used and the resulting products are on a corresponding 
scale. The small charge in the platinum crucible oxidizes readily 
and the iron is converted almost entirely into ferric iron (hematite), 
while in the natural products a lower state of oxidation (magnetite) 
is present. The attempt was made to overcome this difficulty by 
mixing a reducing agent, generally graphite, with the charge before 
treatment, but this proved insufficient for the purpose. In another 

1 Fred. E. Wright, The Methods of Petrographic-microscopic Research. Their Relative Accuracy and 
Range of Application. Publication No. 168, Carnegie Inst, of Washington, 1911. 

2 A. L. Day, E. T. Allen, and J. P. Iddings, Publication No. 31, Carnegie Inst, of Washington; A. L. 
Day, E. S. Shepherd, and F. E. Wright, in Amer. Jour. Sci., 4th ser., xxn, 265-302, 1906; W. P. White.in 
Phys. Rev., xxv, 334-352, 1907, and in Amer. Jour. Sci., 4th ser., xxvm, 453-489, 1909. 



WRIGHT-FBNNEE] PETROGBAPHIC STUDY ' 57 

series of experiments, however, larger charges (about 100 grams) 
of material were heated in a Fletcher gas furnace and with them 
the oxidation was found to be much less, the center of the charges 
containing magnetite and resembling the scoriae more closely than 
did the smaller charges. The dependence of the product obtained 
on the mode of heat treatment to which it had been subjected, 
was thus clearly demonstrated, and is a factor which should be 
taken into account in all such work. 

Descriptions of Specimens 
specimens from buenos aires 

No. 263702. Specimen label. "Samples of the Pampean forma- 
tion (brown and green) from excavation on Veinte Cinco de Mayo, 
Buenos Aires." 

Under this number two distinctly different earths are included; 
the first, a light-brown, porous earth of fine, even grain, the second, 
a pale ashy-green earth, mottled in appearance and noticeably dif- 
ferent from the first in composition. Under the microscope the 
powder of the brown earth was found to consist largely of fragments 
of plagioclase feldspars, glass, and fine earthy material, the last 
usually stained with iron oxide. The plagioclase feldspars range in 
composition from oligoclase to labradorite and often show zonal 
structure. The glass particles are usually colorless and angular or 
splintery in outline and are relatively fresh. Occasional grains of 
pyroxene, hornblende, biotite, quartz, sanidine, apatite, zircon, and 
magnetite were also observed and are all fairly fresh. Most of these 
minerals and the glass are of igneous origin and have evidently been 
assembled from various types of igneous rocks, the majority of which 
were probably andesitic or dioritic in character. 

The second type of earth consists largely of fine calcite with 
occasional larger grains of plagioclase, quartz, and volcanic glass. 
Some argillaceous material is apparently also present. The plagioclase 
is usually fresh and often exhibits zonal structure. This earth 
differs from the first chiefly in its high calcium carbonate content. 

On immersion in water the brown earth in this specimen softens 
and crumbles into brown mud, while the gray earth remains intact 
and hard. On testing the water solution above the earth with silver 
nitrate, only a trace of chlorine was detected. 

No. 263747. Specimen label. "Locality: Buenos Aires, on the old 
Moreno place, where an elevation that rises above the general level of the 
plain is being graded down. Material: White earth which occurred in 
lenticular layers 1 inch to 3 feet thick in the brown loess that looks like 
upper Pampean. Probably volcanic ash." 



58 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [boll. 52 

A loose, white, incoherent earth of even grain consisting in large 
measure (about 90 per cent) of volcanic glass in angular and splintery 
fragments, which often show evidence of viscous flow. Gas inclusions 
are abundant in the glass. The remainder of the material is made 
up of scattered grains of plagioclase, quartz, hornblende, pyroxene, 
relatively abundant biotite, zircon, epidote, apatite, spinel (or garnet), 
and cryptocrystalline calcite. This material is essentially shattered 
volcanic glass (volcanic ash) with which are mingled mineral frag- 
ments, some of which are not of volcanic origin. This ash was tested 
with silver nitrate solution, and only a slight trace of chlorine obtained. 

The powder of this specimen, heated between 720° and 727° C. for 
45 minutes, became flesh-colored, but otherwise remained loose and 
noncoherent; heated to 1,100° for one-half hour, it became agglomer- 
ated and shrunk to a hard, compact mass, but was not fused. Held 
at 1,200° for 3 hours and then at 1,150° for 2 hours, it fused to a pale- 
gray glass, which contained microscopic fragments of plagioclase and 
particles of iron oxide. Gas bubbles were relatively common, but no 
secondary microlites were observed. The refractive index of the 
glass was fairly constant and averaged about 1.485. 

SPECIMENS FROM ALVEAR 

No. 263715. Specimen label. u Locality: Alvear, on the Parana. 
Material: Loess from the deposit in the ravine, selected by Santiago Roth 
for comparison with that from the Middle Pampean at a higher level. 
This material appears to be a secondary deposit derived from, and 
younger than, the Middle Pampean, but Roth regards it as underlying 
and older. B. W. 26 June, 1910." 

A pale-brown, porous aphanitic earth, which consists largely of 
plagioclase, quartz, and glass, with considerable argillaceous material. 
Minor components are pyroxene, hornblende, biotite, and magnetite. 
Most of the silicate fragments show some decomposition. The min- 
eral grains average about 0.1 mm. in diameter and are usually sharp 
and angular. 

This earth was mixed with bituminous coal and heated to 1,300° 
for 30 minutes. It was then reheated at 1,300° for 2 hours and held 
at 1,100° for 17 hours. The resulting gray glass contained fragments 
of the original minerals and flakes and needles of hematite and acicular 
microlites of a substance of medium birefringence and refractive 
index considerably higher than 1.52. The minute crystals showed 
parallel extinction, with the least elliptic axis parallel to the direc- 
tion of elongation, but they proved too fine for satisfactory determi- 
nation. The refractive index of the glass ranged from 1.505 to 
1.525. 



WRIGHT-FBNNER] PETROGEAPHIC STUDY 59 

No. 263716. Specimen label. "Locality: Alvear, on the Parana. 
Material: Loess selected by Santiago Roth to represent the Middle Pam- 
pean, which he regards as younger than the deposit in the bottom of the 
ravine. B. W. 26 June, 1910." 

In general appearance this specimen is practically identical with 
the preceding. It is a light-gray, even-grained earth, coherent but 
not indurated, which consists microscopically of plagioclase, quartz, 
glass, and argillaceous material. Minor components are hornblende, 
pyroxene, magnetite, and spinel (or garnet ( ?)) . As in the preceding 
specimens, igneous and volcanic materials constitute the major part 
of the specimen. Both this earth and the preceding disintegrate 
when immersed in water. Treated with silver nitrate, they give a 
slight chloride reaction. 

This specimen of earth, which is practically identical with 263715, 
was moistened and heated to 510°. The material was caked but not 
reddened by this treatment. At 710° it was slightly reddened. 
Held at 1,000° for 4f hours, the color became a bright brick-red and 
the material was considerably indurated, but no sign of fusion was 
observed under the microscope. This material was noticeably like 
some of the tierras cocidas, but was not so hard. 

No. 263717. Specimen label. "Locality: Alvear, on the Parana. 
Material: L,oessfrom the Middle Pampean of Roth, taken from the bank 
3 feet from, and on the level of, the burnt clay. B. W. 26 June, 1910." 

A light-gray, rather compact, earth of fine, even grain. Similar in 
texture and general appearance to the two specimens just described 
from the same locality. Microscopically, this specimen exhibits the 
characteristic minerals of many of the loess specimens of this region. 
Plagioclase, quartz, and glass, and argillaceous material constitute 
the bulk of the rock, while occasional grains of hornblende, pyroxene, 
biotite, and magnetite are scattered through the specimen. 

This earth disintegrates partially to a lumpy aggregate when 
immersed in water. Its water solution gave only a slight trace of 
chloride when tested with silver nitrate. 

Fragments of this specimen heated to 870° for 16 hours became 
bright brick-red and indurated and could not be distinguished from 
some of the fragments of 263729. Heated to 1,200° for 3 hours, the 
earth was fused to a dark-purple mass, in which fragments of the 
original minerals appeared under the microscope, embedded in a 
colorless to pale-brown glass. The colorless glass was filled with 
minute specks of iron ore, while the pale-brown glass was relatively 
free from such specks and had a slightly higher refractive index 
(n = about 1.530) than the former (n = about 1.510). 

Chemical analysis. — Although this loess contains argillaceous 
material and can not be constant in its composition, it does contain 



60 



BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 



[bull. 52 



much volcanic material and should express this fact in the chemical 
analysis. Since some of the tierra cocida specimens are evidently 
baked loess, it was of interest to have an analysis made of one of 
the typical loess specimens. This and the following analyses were 
made by Mr. J. G. Fairchild in the laboratory of the United States 
Geological Survey: 





I 


la 






Si0 2 


66.81 


1.108 


Q 


42.26 


A1A 


15.04 


.147 


Or 


13.95 


Fe 2 3 


3.11 


.019 


Ab 


15.25 


FeO 


Trace 


_ ___ 


An 


7.80 


MgO 


1.03 


.025 


C 


6.63 


CaO 


1.65 


.029 


Hy 


2.74 


Na 2 


1.79 


.029 


Hm 


3.11 


K 2 


2.31 


.025 


Ku 


0.65 


H 2 0- 


3.34 





Ap 


0.12 


H 2 + 


4.07 









TiO, 


0.65 


.008 






co 2 


None 









PA 


0.06 


.0004 






s 


Trace 









MnO 


0.12 


.0017 







99.98 



42.26 



37.00 



6.63 



85.89 



6.62 



Ratios 



Class 



Order 



Sal 



Fern. 



85.89 7 
6.62 > 1 



Rang 



Na,Q'+K 2 Q' _ 
CaO' 

Subran S Na^ = 



Q^ 42.26 5 3 
F~37.00 < 3 > 5" 



.054 7 5 
.028 1 3" 
.025 5 3 
.029 < 3 > 5* 



I. Loess, Alvear. J. G. Fairchild, United States Geological 

Survey, analyst. 
la. Molecular proportions of I. 

In the calculation of this analysis the method used in the quantita- 
tive system of Cross, Iddings, Pirsson, and Washington has been 
adopted. This system applies strictly only to fresh igneous rocks 
and was not intended for use with sedimentary or altered rocks of 
any description. It is used in the present instance only as. a con- 
venient method for expressing the analysis of a rock which contains 
an abundance of eruptive material. Characteristic for this rock are 



WRIGHT-FENNER] PETROGRAPHIC STUDY 61 

the large amount of salic components and the abundance of free 
corundum in the norm, which is probably due to the argillaceous 
material of the loess. If the rock were an eruptive rock its analysis 
would be classified along with those of certain granites and rhyolites, 
which in the quantitative system are included in the subrang Teha- 
mose of the persalane class. 

No. 263718. Specimen label. "Locality: Alvear on the Parana. 
Material: Brick from the tower near the mass of burnt clay." 

A brick of ordinary red color and usual appearance. Under the 
microscope angular fragments of quartz, plagioclase, and colorless 
glass are seen to be embedded in a microcrystalline, reddish matrix 
which is evidently argillaceous. The deep-red color is probably due 
to the presence of hematite which has resulted from the dehydration 
and breaking down of the limonitic material in the yellowish and 
brownish matrix of the original earths. The hematite is so fine, 
however, that the microscope is of little assistance in the direct 
determination, and the character of the microscopic red dust is 
inferred rather than definitely determined. The thermal experiments 
on the earths of this collection prove that many of them are suitable 
for brickmaking. In the present specimen there is no trace of fusion. 
When immersed in water this material remains intact. No trace of 
chloride was obtained with silver nitrate solution. 

No. 263729. Specimen label. "Locality: Alvear on the Parana. 
Material: Burnt clay from the remains of the lower part of the mass or 
fogon originally discovered by Roth. B. W. 26 June, 1910." 

A brick-red, terra-cotta-like material considerably indurated and 
of fine, even grain. Under the microscope small angular fragments of 
plagioclase, quartz, and glass were observed embedded in a fine 
reddish matrix, evidently argillaceous in character. In comparison 
with the earth (specimen 263717) the present material is similar in 
composition and general texture except that the individual mineral 
grains are possibly slightly smaller in average size. Both specimen 
263717 and specimen 263729 exhibit cavities coated with chalcedony 
and are intersected by films and threads of manganese oxide. 

This specimen remains intact when immersed in water and does not 
crumble. When treated with silver nitrate only the slightest trace 
of chloride was obtained. In this respect the present specimen 
resembles the two preceding specimens. 

This specimen was heated first to 1,300° for 30 minutes and then 
held at 1,100° for 16 hours. The resulting melt was dark-purple in 
color and consisted chiefly of glass in which occasional remnants of 
the original mineral fragments were embedded and also numerous 
microlites of hematite and rarely a minute, lath-shaped crystal, which 
was too fine for satisfactory determination. The major part of the 



62 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

glass was colorless, with a refractive index about 1.510; occasionally 
brown-colored glass fragments with refractive index about 1.53 were 
observed. 



44.02 

31.77 \ 85.28 

9.49 

1 

8.79 



Chemical 


analysis. — 
I 


la 






Si0 2 


65.67 


1.089 


Q 


44.02 


A1 2 3 


16.25 


.159 


Or 


13.39 1 
14.20 


Fe 2 3 


4.89 


.031 


Ab 


FeO 


Trace 





An 


4. 18 J 


MgO 


0.87 


.021 


C 


9.49 


CaO 


1.44 


.026 


Hy 


2.33 


Na 2 


1.66 


.027 


Hm 


4.96 


K 2 


2.29 


.024 


Tn 


1.50 


H 2 0- 


1.98 








H 2 + 


3.44 








Ti0 2 


0.90 


.011 






co 2 


None 








PA 


Trace 








s 


Trace 








MnO 


0.12 


.0017 







99.51 



Ratios 



™ Sal 85.28 7 T 

Class FeH = ^79>r l 

^ -, Q 44.02 5 3 

0rder F = 3T77 < 3 > 5--"- 3 

^ K 2 0'+Na 2 0' .051 5 7 

Ran g CaO- = ^I5 > 3 < 1 2 

a x. K 2 0' .024 5 3 
Subran S Na^ = ^27<3 > 5 3 

I. Tierra cocida, Alvear. J. G. Fairchild, United States 

Geological Survey, analyst. 
la. Molecular proportions of I. 

This analysis is similar to that of the loess 263717 from the same 
locality. The relations of the several elements are not greatly 
different, and the calculation of the analysis on the assumption that 
it was made from a fresh eruptive rock leads to the same subrang 
Tehamose of class 1 of the quantitative classification. 

The last three specimens, Nos. 263717, 263718, 263729, are evi- 
dently modifications of the same material. This is indicated by (1) 
their mineral composition, which was found to be practically identi- 
cal under the microscope except for the reddening of the argillaceous 



WRIGHT-FENNER] PETROGRAPHIC STUDY 63 

material in 263718 and 263729; (2) the close similarity between the 
chemical analyses of 263717 and 263729; (3) the presence of chalce- 
dony lining the cavities in 263717 and 263729; (4) the close resem- 
blance in texture and color between fragments of 263717, baked at 
870° over night, and fragments of 263718 and 263729. The frag- 
ments of 263718 were baked in general slightly harder than those of 
263729. (5) the identity of the glassy products obtained by fusing 
263717 and 263718. (6) The absence of sodium chloride from all 
three specimens. These facts prove with reasonable certainty that 
the earth, the tierra cocida, and the bricks, just described from Alvear, 
are of the same material, and that the last two have been heated under 
the same general conditions. The tierra cocida in this case is prob- 
ably the fragmental baked material from the old brick kiln in which 
the bricks were made. 

No. 263738. Specimen label. " Locality: Saladillo near Rosario. 
Material: Burnt clay, calcareous concretions, and animal hones from 
the conglomeratic layer in the ' Middle Pampean' of Roth. B. W. 
25 June, 1910." 

As indicated in the specimen label, a number of different rock types 
have been included in this lot: (a) Soft-brown loess of the usual 
characteristics and composition (chiefly fragments of quartz, plagio- 
clase, hornblende, magnetite, and argillaceous material); (&) pieces 
of baked loess ranging in color from brick-red to brown and often 
containing dark linings of probable manganese oxide; (c) nodules of 
finely crystalline calcite; (d) black nodules rich in phosphate and 
evidently associated with (e) bones which have been highly altered 
and contain fine, micro crystalline calcite and black phosphatic 
material and a pale-yellow to white, microcrystalline substance of 
weak to medium birefringence and refractive index about 1 .60. This 
substance occurs in so intricately intergrown and overlapping 
aggregates that further optical properties could not be determined 
with certainty. (/) Rounded pebbles of a substance which agreed 
in its properties with the white substance just described were also 
observed and tested chemically. The pebble tested was examined 
under the microscope and found to be practically homogeneous. 
Heated in a closed tube a small amount of water was obtained. The 
substance is completely soluble in dilute hydrochloric and also nitric 
acid with strong effervescence of carbonic-acid gas. Phosphoric acid 
was found to be one of the principal constituents; also calcium. The 
mineral is evidently a hydrated calcium carbonate-phosphate. The 
only mineral listed in Dana's Mineralogy of this nature is dahllite, 
whose optical properties, so far as determined, agree approximately 
with those recorded above. The density of this substance, however, is 
about 2.53, which is quite different from that given for dahllite 
(3.053). Unfortunately not enough of this material is available for 



64 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

a chemical analysis or for detailed tests. It appears to have resulted 
from the interaction of calcium carbonate- and calcium phosphate- 
bearing solutions, the calcium phosphate having been derived from 
the bones which appear in this stratigraphic horizon. 

SPECIMENS FROM THE VICINITY OF MAR DEL PLATA 

No. 263704. Specimen label. " Locality: Four miles north of Mar 
del Plata in the Barrancas del Norte. Material: Greenish loess form- 
ing a stratum near high tide. Ameghino's Belgranean.^ 

A pale greenish-gray, pulverulent material consisting in large part 
of plagioclase, glass, and argillaceous substance. With this specimen 
a special concentration test was made to determine as completely as 
possible the minerals present, for the purpose of ascertaining whether 
any mineral of other than igneous origin occurred. A considerable 
quantity of material was first washed with water and the clay and 
major part of the lighter minerals thus removed. The remaining part 
was then separated in a heavy Thoulet solution and a heavy, dark- 
colored, residual sand obtained which consisted of a great variety of 
minerals. Inclusive of the lighter constituents the following minerals 
were recognized : (1 ) Plagioclase (andesine, and labradorite, the grains 
often showing zonal structure) ; (2) quartz; (3) sanidine; (4) pyroxene 
(diopside, augite, and titaniferous augite); (5) hornblende; (6) glass, 
colorless and brown. Many of the characteristics of volcanic glass 
are clearly shown in this specimen. The particles often appear as 
elongated rods and frequently contain long-drawn-out gas inclusions. 
Splintery and pronglike forms are not uncommon and often show 
conchoidal fracture. Birefringent spherulites occur in certain 
instances and practically replace the volcanic glass. The glass does 
not appear to have suffered much attrition, but the individual grains 
are too small to be affected seriously by water transport. That this 
volcanic glass does not have the same composition throughout is 
evident from the variation from grain to grain in the refractive index, 
which ranges from about 1.50 to 1.54. Evidently material from 
different sources has been brought together by water action. (7) 
Magnetite; (8) biotite; (9) and (10) epidote and zoisite in consider- 
able quantity and of various types; (11) zircon; (12) tourmaline; 
(13) titanite; (14) apatite; (15) garnet; (16) spinel (probable); (17) 
brucite (probable); (18-22) five minerals which could not be posi- 
tively identified. One agreed well in its optical properties with 
monazite; another was suspected to be wulfenite. 

Most of these minerals are typical of igneous rocks, but a few of 
them, as epidote and zoisite, which are abundant, are metamorphic 
rather than igneous minerals. Tourmaline is a common contact 
mineral, but occurs also in certain kinds of igneous rocks. Some of 



WRIGHT-FENNER] PETROGKAPHIC STUDY 65 

the doubtful minerals are also at home in metamorphic rocks or in 
veins rather than in igneous rocks. 

On immersion in water this earth does not break down easily. 
The water solution above it was found to contain abundant chloride 
in the form probably of sodium chloride derived from salt water. 

On heating this earth to 1,100° for 30 minutes, a hard, fused lump 
with glazed surface was obtained, purple in color and containing 
microscopic fragments of quartz, plagioclase, pyroxene, and mag- 
netite embedded in a nearly colorless glass base, which was often 
clouded by innumerable specks of iron oxide. On heating another 
portion to 1,200° for 3 hours and then at 1,150° for 3 J hours, the 
melt was found to have settled in the crucible to a dark purplish- 
brown glass, which still showed under the microscope fragments of 
the original minerals. The glass in this case, however, was notice- 
ably brown in transmitted light and contained innumerable minute 
hematite scales which had evidently crystallized from the glass; no 
evidence of other secondary crystals was obtained. The colorless 
glass (^=1.50) has a lower refractive index than the brown-colored 
glass (n = 1.515 to 1.525). 

No. 263713. Specimen label. "Locality: Barrancas del Norte, 
about 4 miles north of Mar del Plata. Material: Samples of pebbly 
loess, filling hollows in the green and brown loess beneath. Formation: 
Ameghino's ' Bonaerean.' " 

A light brownish-gray, fine-grained earth containing many rounded 
fragments which are of similar material, but slightly more indurated. 
Under the microscope the matrix was found to consist largely of 
argillaceous material usually stained with iron oxide. Plagioclase 
and glass are also abundant. Hornblende, pyroxene, epidote, and 
magnetite are present in subordinate quantity. The pebblelike 
fragments consist of practically the same substances. In them 
pyroxene seemed slightly more abundant, and spinel and apatite 
were observed in addition to the minerals noted in the matrix. This 
earth disintegrates in water to a lumpy mud. Its water solution 
contains abundant chloride (probably common salt from sea water). 

No. 263706. Specimen label. "Locality: Barrancas del Norte, 
north of Mar del Plata, 600 feet south of Arroyo Came. Material: 
Loess from stratum in which wind-hollowed pocket was excavated, 4 
feet above high tide." 

A fairly hard, grayish-brown earth, consisting in large part (60 per 
cent or more) of isotropic, colorless glass, which appears in angular 
splinters or in rodlike forms produced evidently by the drawing out 
of viscous glass. Gas inclusions in the shape of fine capillary tubes 
are characteristic of such glass rods. Besides the volcanic glass 
much argillaceous material is present ; also fragments of plagioclase, 

21535°— Bull. 52—12 5 



66 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY Lbull. 52 

quartz, hornblende, biotite, pyroxene (evidently several varieties in 
shades of brown, green, and purple), magnetite, apatite, zircon, 
tourmaline, epidote, and probably spinel. Except for the larger 
proportion of volcanic glass this specimen is similar to specimen 
263704. 

On immersion in water this earth does not break down easily. The 
water solution surrounding the earth gives a strong chloride reaction 
when treated with silver nitrate. 

A portion of tins earth was mixed with graphite and heated to 
1,300° for a few minutes and then held at 1,100°±30° overnight 
(16 hours). A pale greenish glass resulted, which contained isolated 
remnants of the original quartz and plagioclase fragments. Hex- 
agonal crystals or aggregates of hematite, which had been formed 
from the melt, occurred frequently and were the only evidence of 
crystallization from the magma. The refractive index of the glass 
was found to vary considerably (from 1.50 to 1.525). 

No. 263708. Specimen label. ''Locality: Barrancas del Norte, 
north of Mar del Plata, 600 feet south of Arroyo Came. Material: 
Filling of wind-hollowed cavity, taken I^feet above high tide.'" 

A pale-brown, fine earth containing microscopic fragments of 
plagioclase (andesine and labradorite, the individual crystals often 
showing zonal structure), volcanic glass, quartz, sanidine, hornblende, 
biotite, pyroxene, magnetite, and zircon. The plagioclase is fairly 
abundant and fresh. Argillaceous substance, often stained with 
iron oxide, is scattered through the specimen and coats the indi- 
vidual mineral grains. In this specimen, as in most of the pre- 
ceding, the average diameter of the grains is about 0.1 mm. Com- 
pared with specimen 263706 this specimen contains noticeably less 
volcanic glass. 

When immersed in water this earth crumbles somewhat, but not 
entirely, many large resistant lumps remaining intact. The water 
solution above it gives a strong chloride reaction when treated with 
silver nitrate. 

No. 263711. Specimen label. "Locality: Beach 1% miles north 
of Mar del Plata. Material: Pebbly loess resembling in the bed a soft 
volcanic agglomerate. Formation: l Ensenadean' of Ameghino." 

The present hand specimen gives practically no hint of the pebbly 
character of this formation, but appears to be a uniform gray-brown 
earth, even grained, and fairly coherent. Under the microscope the 
principal components are plagioclase and glass, both much decom- 
posed. Hornblende, biotite, pyroxene, magnetite, and epidote were 
also observed in scattered grains. In general aspect and composition 
this earth is not greatly different from those preceding. Argillaceous 
substance is abundant and is evidently due in part to weathering. 



WEIGHT-FENNER] PETROGRAPHIC STUDY 67 

On immersion in water this specimen disintegrates readily into a 
lumpy mud. The water solution above was found to contain abun- 
dant chloride (probably common salt). 

No. 263742. Specimen label. " Locality: Mar del Plata, Barrancas 
del Norte. Material: ' Tosca,' from the ' Ensenadean' of Ameghino." 

A light-gray-brown, stony material of fine, even grain. The 
microscopic examination of the specimen revealed the presence of 
very fine-grained calcite, in which are embedded many larger grains 
of plagioclase, quartz, colorless glass, and a little pyroxene. Both 
macroscopic and microscopic evidence indicates a concretionary 
limestone or nodule in the loess formation. 

On immersion in water this specimen remains fairly intact. Tested 
with silver nitrate solution it gives a strong chloride reaction (prob- 
ably common salt). 

No. 263740. Specimen label. " Laguna de los Padres, 10 miles 
west of Mar del Plata. Material: Baked loess from hole about 12 
inches deep in which there had been a large hot fire." 

A burnt-looking earth, light-brown to black in color, which crumbles 
to a fine, soft powder. Under the microscope the most abundant 
components were found to be plagioclase and glass, both partly 
decomposed and stained with iron oxide. Hornblende, pyroxene, 
zircon, apatite, epidote, and magnetite (often altered) were present 
in smaller quantities. Argillaceous material is widely disseminated 
through the rock. The color of the black portion appears to be due 
to carbonaceous material, and merely the blackening from the fire. 
There is no evidence of fusion. 

Immersed in water this specimen remains fairly intact and only 
here and there crumbles down to mud. Its water solution contains 
abundant chloride (probably sodium chloride) . 

No. 263703. Specimen label. " Locality: Bajada Martinez de Hoz- 
Barrancas de los Lobos. South of Mar del Plata. Material: ' Tosca' 
from lower part of the ' Chapadmalean' [*] formation of Ameghi?io." 

This large specimen is not homogeneous throughout but includes 
two different types of material— a light-brown earth and a grayish- 
brown, stony substance which is evidently concretionary in character. 
The brown earth was found under the microscope to consist chiefly 
of earthy argillaceous substance, plagioclase, and volcanic glass. 
The argillaceous material was usually stained brown by iron oxide. 
The plagioclase fragments were quite fresh and ranged in composition 
from andesine to labradorite, the individual fragments often showing 
zonal growth. Orthoclase and quartz were also observed and occa- 
sionally grains of magnetite, pyroxene and hornblende. In general 
aspect this earthy specimen is not unlike No. 263702 from Buenos 
Aires. 

[ l Written also Chapalmalean.] 



68 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

The indurated part of the specimen consists largely of fine, almost 
aphanitic calcite. Occasionally coarser-grained patches of the 
calcite occur, especially near and in the druses which are not uncom- 
mon in the rock. Accessory components are plagioclase, quartz, 
magnetite, and some hornblende. This part of the material is 
evidently concretionary limestone and similar in formation to the 
Loess-kindel of Germany. 

The earthy part of this specimen disintegrates to a fine mud in 
water; the calcareous part remains practically unchanged. A strong 
chlorine reaction was obtained with silver nitrate from the water 
solution which contained the earth. 

The concretionary calcite and the earthy portions of this specimen 
were mixed together in about equal parts and heated to 1,050°; 
brick-red, indurated material resulted but no melting. On another 
charge, held at 1,200° for 30 minutes, incipient fusion was observed; 
heated to 1,300° for 2 hours the powder melted down to a vesicular 
glass, which was reheated for one-half hour at 1,300° and then cooled 
to 1,100° and held at about that temperature for 16 hours (over 
night). During this last period the temperature may have varied 
30° or 40°. The product thus obtained was pale-brown, compact, and 
stony in appearance. Under the microscope, the original mineral 
fragments were found to have disappeared and the glass to have 
recrystallized in large part. In the crystalline aggregate sections of 
a colorless substance of medium birefringence, maximum refractive 
index about 1.655, parallel extinction on square sections, apparently 
uniaxial and optically negative, predominate and are probably 
gehlenite. Minute specks of a higher-refracting, weakly birefracting 
substance occur in the gehlenite sections but were too fine for satisfac- 
tory determination. Low-refracting isotropic glass particles were 
not uncommon. None of these crystallized substances were found 
in the scoriae. 

No. 263712. Specimen label. "Locality: Bajada Martinez de 
Hoz-Barrancas de los Lobos. South of Mar del Plata. Material: 
Loess of the ' Chapadmalean' formation of Ameghino from the lowest 
part of the exposure near high-tide level." 

A fine-grained, gray-brown earth, similar in appearance to specimen 
263711, from the north of Mar del Plata. The mineral components 
observed under the microscope are plagioclase, quartz, sanidine, 
hornblende, biotite, zircon and magnetite. Volcanic glass and 
argillaceous subtance are also present, the glass being relatively 
less abundant than in many of the preceding specimens. The plagio- 
clase is relatively abundant and appears in broken, twinned grains 
averaging about 0.1 mm. in diameter; zonal growth is characteristic 
of many of its fragments. In general type and composition this 
earth is similar to the earths described above. Characteristic for the 



WrigSt^bnnbr] PETKOGRAPHIC STUDY 69 

entire group is the abundance of siliceous volcanic glass and minerals 
derived from igneous rocks. This earth disintegrates readily in water 
to a fine mud. The water solution above it contains abundant 
chloride (probably sodium chloride). 

Part of this specimen was powdered, mixed with bituminous coal 
and heated to 1,300° for 30 minutes; a fused product was obtained. 
After heatmg at 1,300° for 2 hours it was held at 1,100° overnight 
(17 hours). A dark, glassy mass resulted, which contained remnants 
of the original fragments of quartz and plagioclase set in a glass 
matrix out of which hematite crystals in separate individuals and 
stellate groups had formed in abundance; more rarely minute 
acicular crystals, either isolated or in radial clusters, occurred 
(probably pyroxene). Their optical properties, so far as deter- 
mined, were: Refractive index high; birefringence medium to fairly 
strong, extinction angle often large, with elliptical axis jc nearest the 
axis of elongation. The refractive index of the glass ranged from 
about 1.510 to 1.525. 

SPECIMENS FROM MIRAMAR AND VICINITY 

No. 263701. Specimen label. "Locality: Miramar. Coast for a 
mile north. Material: Portion of ' Ensenadean' (Ameghino), represent- 
ing the deposit above the intraformalional unconformity." 

A grayish-brown, distinctly conglomeratic rock in which hardened 
nodules, ranging up to 3 cm. in diameter, but generally less than 
1 cm., are included in a fine softer matrix. Scattered through the 
matrix are, furthermore, hard, brown, cherty grains, round, and 
from a half to 1 cm. in diameter; microscopically these grains consist 
in large part of quartz and chalcedony more or less filled with fine 
particles of iron ore. The pale-gray nodules on the other hand 
consist essentially of calcite in minute grains and clusters, associated 
with which are a few larger grains of plagioclase (mostly albite and 
oligoclase with occasional grains of labradorite), quartz, glass, 
pyroxene, hornblende, and magnetite. The subangular appearance 
of these nodules indicates that they were not formed in place but 
were derived from rocks not far distant. The rounded and polished 
chert grains, on the other hand, have evidently been transported 
long distances. The matrix contains chiefly plagioclase, glass, and 
argillaceous material. Minor components are quartz, pyroxene, 
hornblende, biotite, magnetite, and zircon. This earth falls into 
pieces when immersed in water; the soft material crumbles into mud 
and the nodules remain intact. When tested with silver nitrate this 
earth gave a strong chloride reaction. 

No- 263710. Specimen label. "Locality: Miramar. Exposed 
'Ensenadean/ % mile north. Material: Ferruginous segregation regarded 
by both Ameghinos as ' Tierra Cocida. ' T ' 



70 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [boll. 52 

This specimen is a rounded piece of brown ferruginous earth, which 
has evidently existed as a unit and been exposed to wind or water 
transportation. Its outer surface is coated with small, rounded 
particles and grains of quartz, plagioclase, pyroxene, magnetite, and 
limestone, which are embedded in the fine, earthy material of the 
specimen proper. The earth itself consists of argillaceous material 
and fragments of quartz, plagioclase, pyroxene, hornblende, mag- 
netite, and zircon. The darker-brown, ferruginous areas, which are 
distributed irregularly through the specimen, are similar in composi- 
tion except for the pronounced accumulation of limonitic material, 
which is evidently the cementing material. Here and there in the 
broken specimen long, canal-like cavities were observed, which evi- 
dently mark the course of grass roots that have now disappeared. 
On immersion in water this earth crumbles to a fine brown mud. 
Its water solution gives a strong chloride reaction when tested with 
silver nitrate. 

No. 263709. Specimen label. "Locality: About Jive miles north 
of Miramar. Bluff of Chapadmalean and Ensenadean. Material: 
Tierra Cocida from a fogon or fireplace 4 fed above beach in situ in 
the Chapadmalean. B. W. 2 June, 1910." 

A light-brown, fine, evenly grained earth which consists of micro- 
scopic grains, averaging 0.1 mm. in diameter, of quartz, plagioclase 
(albite, oligoclase), a little biotite and hornblende. Glass is also 
present but appears decomposed and no longer clear. Argillaceous 
material is abundant. Finely crystalline aggregates of a low-refract- 
ing substance, possibly opal, were observed in several parts of the 
specimen. A uniaxial negative substance of medium birefringence 
and refractive index about 1.55 was encountered in the powder 
section, but was not identified with certainty. This earth crumbles 
and breaks down into mud when immersed in water. Its water 
solution gives a strong chloride reaction when treated with silver 
nitrate. 

The earth was heated with graphite to 1,300° for 30 minutes and 
then held at 1,100° over night. The product was a dark-green glass, 
in which microscopic fragments of the original minerals were still 
visible. An unusual amount of hematite had crystallized from the 
melt; also occasionally a minute silicate microlite which was too fine 
for satisfactory determination. In a second experiment a portion 
was heated to 1,300° with graphite. After fusion more material 
was added and the whole mass reheated to 1,300°. This was repeated 
several times. Finally the glass was crushed, mixed with graphite, 
heated to 1,300° for 40 minutes and then held at 1,000° over night. 
The resulting glass was dark-green in color and contained occasional 
traces of the original mineral fragments. In addition there were 
present numerous clusters of microlites of fairly strong birefringence 




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wright-fenner] PETBOGRAPHIC STUDY 71 

and refractive index noticeably greater than 1.53; the microlites 
extinguished parallel with their elongation but were too fine for 
identification. The refractive index of the glass ranged from 1.51 to 
1.53. Neither hematite nor magnetite was present except in traces 
around the microlites. To vary the conditions of heating a larger 
quantity of the earth was taken (100 grams) and heated in a Fletcher 
gas furnace at 1,100°-1,200° for half an hour and then quickly 
withdrawn and allowed to cool in air. The product thus obtained 
was highly scoriaceous and resembled closely some of the natural 
scorias. The glass which had been formed was streaky, and varied in 
refractive index from about 1.515 to 1.540. Grains of the original 
quartz and plagioclase, pyroxene, and magnetite fragments were 
still visible. The cooling of the magma was rapid and no new crystals 
were formed as a result. A second charge consisting of lumps of the 
earth was heated in a similar way ha the gas furnace but at slightly 
lower temperature. The lumps assumed a glassy surface and 
although entirely melted were evidently so viscous that little evidence 
of flow was noticeable. On both these samples red hematite was 
formed on the outer glassy surface but, in the interior of the lumps, 
the mass was gray-black in color and no new hematite was observed 
with certainty. The orighial magnetite fragments were still visible. 
New crystallization had evidently not taken place. In both cases 
the glass was full of small bubbles and streaky, and variable hi 
composition and refractive index (1.515 to 1.54). (PL 7.) The 
evidence from the different methods of heating adopted above 
indicates that the character of the product is dependent somewhat 
on the heat treatment it has undergone. 

No. 263725. Specimen label. "Locality: Miramar. Material: 
Disseminated scoria.'' 

A pale-brown earth of uneven grain in which are imbedded pieces 
of a grayish-black, scoriaceous substance of variable size and ranging 
from large lumps to small pellets. The vesicles of the scoria have 
usually a glazed surface and are often filled with the earth which 
surrounds them. There is no evidence of a transition between the 
scoria and the earth. Clinging to the scoria and firmly wedged into 
some of the small cavities are rounded grams of quartz, calcite, 
plagioclase (oligoclase, andesine, and labradorite), pyroxene, garnet, 
magnetite, and volcanic glass. These grams are noticeably coarser 
than the earth which surrounds the scoria and have evidently been 
blown or washed into their present position. The larger pieces of 
scoria often appear freshly broken, but at the contact of "undisturbed 
scoria and earth the surface of the scoria suggests an orighial smooth, 
rounded surface similar to the surface of a volcanic bomb or scoria 
rather than that of an originally angular fragment which has been 
subsequently rounded by attrition during water transportation. 



72 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

Even the small scoria pellets in the earth frequently impress the 
observer as presenting in large measure the original glass surface. 
These relations indicate that the scoriae were not derived from a 
large, compact lava mass. Microscopically the scoria is essentially a 
microlite-bearing glass crowded with fragments of plagioclase, quartz, 
pyroxene, and magnetite. The refractive index of the glass varies 
rapidly even in short distances and ranges from above 1.55 to below 
1.52. Near the microlites which have crystallized from the glass, 
the color of the glass is often a pale-brown. The microlites appear 
in radial spherulites and irregularly grouped acicular crystals. They 
are co]orless to pale-brown, of medium birefringence and of average 
refractive index, slightly greater than 1.65. The lath-shaped indi- 
viduals often show high extinction angles; c : jc=40° was measured 
in one instance. The optical character is positive. The optical 
properties agree, so far as determined, with those of pyroxene. This 
microlitic pyroxene does not agree in its properties with the larger 
green pyroxene crystal fragments noted above. The large, frag- 
mental crystals never show normal crystal outlines but are always 
broken and irregular in outline. They are similar in shape, size, 
and composition to the crystals found in the earthy loess of the 
country. They often appear partially resorbed by the magma. 
Some of the crystals are even fractured. At certain points the thin 
section is crowded with angular fragments, each one of which repre- 
sents a portion of a single crystal, and these are set in a paste of glass 
in which there has been very little crystallization. The occurrence 
of these fragments of plagioclase and also of quartz in a glass out of 
which they were not observed to recrystallize is good evidence of the 
melting-down of originally crystallized material. The variation in 
refractive index of the glass and also in adjacent plagioclase frag- 
ments (observed values ranged from 1.55 to 1.565) is evidence that 
the rock is not a volcanic rock of any normal type. In a cooling 
magma or lava the composition of the residual glass is fairly uniform, 
whereas in the present rock the refractive index (and consequently 
the composition) of the glass varies rapidly. Different explanations 
may be offered for the formation of such a rock type, all of which 
involve a partial melting-down or assimilation of originally crystal- 
lized material containing fragments of quartz, plagioclase, pyroxene, 
and magnetite. It is noteworthy in this connection that no frag- 
ments of original rock-types were observed, only isolated mineral 
fragments such as occur in the fine earths of this region. These 
fragments appear embedded in a glass base out of which radial 
pyroxene crystals are formed. The evidence at hand is not sufficient 
to determine definitely the mode of formation of these scoriae. 

The earth surrounding the scoria is of the usual fine, evenly grained 
type and consists of fragments of plagioclase (oligoclase, andesine, 



WRtGHf-PBNNER] PETBOGRAPHIC STUDY *73 

labradorite), quartz, hornblende, pyroxene, magnetite, colorless vol- 
canic glass of low refractive index, and argillaceous material. On 
immersion in water this earth crumbles slightly. Its water solution 
contains abundant chloride (tested with silver nitrate). 

Part of the earthy material which surrounds the scoriae in this 
specimen was heated to 1,100° for 30 minutes; then it remained at 
1,200° for 3| hours, and finally at 1,100° for 1£ hours. The product 
was a vesicular, purple-colored glass, in which the original fragments 
of quartz and plagioclase were still visible under the microscope. In 
transmitted light the glass appeared colorless, but was filled with fine, 
dust-like particles of hematite. No new development of crystals was 
observed. The refractive index of the glass was about 1.51. The 
scoriaceous part of the specimen was heated at 1,240° for 1 hour and 
then held at 1,000° for 1| hours. The resulting glass was greenish- 
brown in color and had evidently settled quietly in the crucible. 
Under the microscope numerous grains of the original quartz and 
plagioclase fragments were observed. Clusters of acicular microlites 
of medium birefringence, parallel extinction, and refractive index 
greater than 1.53 are abundant, but are too fine for satisfactory 
determination. The refractive index of the glass, which appears 
pale-brown in transmitted light, varies from about 1.515 to 1.54. 

No. 263727. Specimen label. " Locality: Miramar. Material: 
Tierra cocida and scorise combined. Contact transition." 

The hand specimen shows a regular and uniform transition from a 
dark-gray scoria filled with small vesicles to a brick-red material, 
which bears a close resemblance to some of the specimens of baked 
earth. It is different from the latter, however, in this respect, that, 
while the baked earths have a close, compact texture, the portion 
of this specimen which resembles them most (observed with a 
binocular magnifying glass, magnification 65 diameters) is filled 
with minute holes and is distinctly glassy in character. A thin 
section which was cut across both the black scoria and the transition 
zone to the. bright-red material bore out this observation. The 
black scoria is filled with fragments of quartz, plagioclase (acid 
oligoclase to basic labradorite), pyroxene, and magnetite, set in a 
glassy matrix in which a few microlitic crystals have developed, but 
which is essentially an undifferentiated glass except for a black dust, 
probably of magnetite. On passing toward the compact red portion 
the principal change observable is the replacement of the black dust 
by red dust, which is more prominent and tends to cover up the 
crystallized fragments and even the minute vesicles. In the more 
compact red portion the red iron oxide is so prominent that the 
mineral fragments are almost veiled to view. A careful determina- 
tion of the mineral fragments in the black and the red portions of the 
specimen proved them to be of the same general size and kind, chiefly 



74 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

quartz and different varieties of plagioclase, ranging from oligoclase 
to basic labradorite, and occasional grains of pyroxene. Superficially 
the red portion of this specimen resembles the baked earths, but 
closer examination has shown it to be distinctly different. Its glassy, 
vesicular texture throughout is indicative of melting; the red colora- 
tion may be the result of alteration or oxidation, whereby magnetite 
has been changed to the red oxide of iron. It seems probable from 
this evidence alone that the whole of the present specimen represents 
an originally vesicular rock in the red part of which the iron is in 
a more highly oxidized state than in the dark-gray part. 

No. 263728. Specimen label. u Locality: 3 miles north of Mira- 
mar. Bluff on the coast, 5 feet oelow the top in Ameghino's, 'Ensena- 
dean.' Material: Scoria and adjacent loess." 

This specimen is an irregular, slaglike piece of scoria, consisting of 
a dark, olive-green glass, almost pumiceous at certain points and 
filled with vesicles which are often so large and numerous as to leave 
only thin walls of the glass between them. The outer surface of this 
scoria has plainly been in contact with the loess, some of which still 
clings to it and is of a light-brown color. The division between the 
scoria and the loess is sharp and there is no indication of a transition 
between the two. In the cavities of the scoria there is an accumula- 
tion of rounded grains of magnetite, olivine, quartz, and plagioclase, 
measuring up to 1 mm. in diameter. These have reached their pres- 
ent position either by wind or by water action. Microscopically this 
scoria is similar to specimen 263725. Angular and rounded frag- 
ments of quartz, plagioclase, and pyroxene are set in a streaky, 
brownish glass out of which lath-shaped microlites, showing high 
extinction angles and medium birefringence, have crystallized; these 
are probably pyroxene. The refractive index of the glass is not con- 
stant, but ranges from about 1.515 to 1.55, and occasionally shows 
birefringence resulting evidently from strain. 

The brown earth surrounding the scoria is of the usual type and 
consists chiefly of argillaceous material, fragments of plagioclase, 
quartz, pyroxene, and magnetite. Volcanic glass is less abundant 
than usual. 

Part of the scoria was heated to 1,240° for 1 hour and then held at 
1,000° for 1| hours. Under this treatment it melted down to a dark, 
brownish-green glass, in which many of the original mineral frag- 
ments (quartz, plagioclase, and pyroxene) were still visible. Newly 
formed microlites of high refractive index, medium to fairly strong 
birefringence and parallel extinction, were also abundant, but were 
too fine for satisfactory determination. Occasionally radial aggregates 
of a lower-refracting, medium to weakly birefracting, substance were 
observed, which may have been plagioclase feldspar. Particles of 



wbight-fbnner] 




PETEOGR 


APHIC 


STUDY 




75 


iron ore were 


widely 


disseminated through the glass 


The refractive 


index of the 


glass ranged from 1.52 to 1.545. 






Chemical analysis.- 














I 


la 










Si0 2 


61.30 


1.016 


Q 


5.43 


5.43 | 




A1 2 3 


14.15 


.139 


Or 


21.20 




76.52 


Fe 2 03 


0.91 


.006 


Ab 


46.27 


71.09 | 




FeO 


2.86 


.040 


An 


3.62 






MgO 


2.46 


.061 


Di 


12.79 


16.23 




CaO 


4.63 


.083 


Hy 


3.44 j 




Na 2 


5.47 


.088 


Mt 


1.39 


2.45 


20.29 


K 9 


3.62 


.038 


11 


1.06 




H 2 0- 


0.24 





Ap 


1.55 


| 1.61 




H 2 + 


2.03 





Pr 


.06 




Ti0 2 


0.54 


.007 










co 2 


None 













PA 


0.71 


.005 










s 


0.03 


.001 










MnO 


0.08 


.001 











98.99 

Ratios 

n1 Sal 76.52 5 .7 TT 

CksS Feln = 2a29 > 3 < r--- D 

Order -9 = 5 ' 43 < - 5 

Umer F 71.09 < 7" "■■■ 

t, K^O'+NaX*' .126 ^7 , 

g , K 2 0' .038 .3. I , 

Subrang Na> = ^88 < 5 > 7 4 

I. Scoria, Miramar. J. G. Fairchild, United States Geological 

Survey, analyst, 
la. Molecular proportions of I. 

Compared with the analysis of the tierra cocida, No. 263722, this 
analysis presents several noticeable differences. The alumina is 
lower, also the ferric oxide and the water, while the ferrous oxide 
and alkalies are notably higher. Lime and magnesia are also slightly 
higher. Considering this analysis as that of a fresh eruptive rock, 
the calculation places the rock in the subrang Umptekose of Class II 
of the quantitative classification. On comparing this analysis with 
the others of this class listed in Washington's Chemical Analysis 
of Igneous Rocks, the relatively low alumina and alkali content is 
noticeable; also the relatively large amount of magnesia and of lime. 



*76 BUREAU OF AMERICA*? ETHNOLOGY tSOLL. 52 

There -is nothing, however, in the analysis alone which precludes an 
igneous origin for this rock. 

No. 263731. Specimen label. "Locality: Miramar. Material: 
Scoria and Tierra Cocida." 

This specimen includes three distinct types of material : A grayish- 
black scoria, brick-red earthy material, and pale-brown loess. The 
scoria is vesicular and full of small bubbles. Parts of the outer 
surface of the scoria are often glassy and smooth and indicative of an 
original cooling surface. Where this surface is fractured, the small 
cavities are more or less filled with brown earth and with coarser 
rounded crystals of quartz, plagioclase, magnetite, and pyroxene. 
These grains have evidently been lodged in their present position 
either by wind or by water action. On one side of the specimen a brick- 
red, compact earth fills the small cavities and is evidently different 
from and older than the normal brown loess. In the cavities con- 
taining the brick-red earth, no rounded, coarser grains of the minerals, 
noted above, were observed. This red earth is more or less indurated 
and closely resembles the tierra cocida from Alvear described above 
and probably owes its color to a baking process at higher tempera- 
tures. There is, however, no transition between the glassy scoria and 
this red earth. The glassy walls of the vesicles are sharply marked 
and the red earth was evidently introduced into the cavities after 
their formation and is of later origin. Microscopically the com- 
position of the scoria and the red earth is noticeably different. The 
red earth contains abundant red iron oxide and chalcedony, besides 
fragments of quartz, sodic plagioclase (oligoclase chiefly) and pyrox- 
ene and colorless glass. These same minerals are present in the 
scoriae, but the plagioclase is noticeably more anorthic (andesine and 
labradorite) and pyroxene is less abundant. The glass is pale-brown 
and streaky, the colors appearing often along curved bands as 
though the molten glass had flowed. The microlites which have 
crystallized from the glass show medium birefringence, but are not 
sufficiently well-developed to be satisfactorily determined. At 
many points in the specimen a thin shell of the glass lining the 
cavities has devitrified and scales off in thin flakes. 

The brown earth is of the usual type, a friable, pale-brown loess 
containing argillaceous material and fragments of quartz, plagio- 
clase (labradorite), pyroxene, magnetite, and glass. This material 
is obviously later than both the scoria and the red earth. 

Portions of the scoria and of the adjacent earth, each mixed with 
graphite, were heated simultaneously in separate crucibles to 1,200° 
for 2 hours and then cooled slowly for 2 hours from 1,200° to 1,000°. 
The scoria was found to have melted down to a dark olive-green glass 
which took the shape of the crucible. Microscopically it contained 
remnants of the original mineral fragments and also a few minute 



wright-fennhr] PETROGRAPHIC STUDY 77 

microlites. The magnetite of the original scoria appears to have 
been largely absorbed. The earthy material in the second crucible 
also melted down to a thick viscous glass which did not flow rapidly 
enough to take the shape of the crucible during the time of exposure. 
In it the original mineral fragments are still visible. The glass 
present was colorless, but was filled with fine, dust-like particles of 
iron ore. Its refractive index was about 1 .51 , while that of the brown- 
colored scoria glass ranged from about 1.515 to 1.54. 

No. 263719. Specimen label. " Locality: Miramar. Material: 
Washed-in hits of Tierra Cocida and Scoria." 

A pale-brown loess of the usual type containing fragments of scoria 
and red indurated material. The vesicular cavities of these scoriae 
often contain rounded grains of quartz, chert, magnetite, plagioclase, 
and pyroxene; these grains are occasionally tightly wedged into the 
small bubble cavities. The loess contains much argillaceous material 
and minute fragments of quartz, inicrocline, plagioclase, magnetite, 
pyroxene, and colorless glass. Small worm-like cavities are common 
and are evidently due to former grass roots. The scoria? pebbles are 
similar to specimen No. 263734 in appearance and composition. The 
red earth contains much brick-red, argillaceous material and also 
minute fragments of quartz, acid plagioclase (oligoclase), pyroxene, 
hornblende, and colorless volcanic glass. This red earth resembles in 
its properties that of specimen 263731. This specimen crumbles 
slightly and softens when immersed in water. Tested with silver 
nitrate it gives a strong chloride reaction (probably common salt 
derived from sea water.) 

No. 263720. Specimen label. "Locality: Barrancas 3 to 5 miles 
north, of Miramar. to 5 feet above the base, i. e.,from the lowest for- 
mation above the beach. Ameghino's Chapadmalean. Material: Scoria 
and burnt earth." 

This specimen consists of a large fragment of scoria, similar in 
appearance and properties to No. 263728, embedded in pale-brown 
loess of the usual properties and closely allied to No. 26371 9 in texture 
and composition. 

Nos. 263724, 263726, 263733, 263734, 263737. Specimen labels. 
" Locality: Miramar. Material: Scorise and Tierra Cocida." 

These specimens are similar to the specimens noted above from 
this locality. The scoria? are of the same general appearance and 
composition and contain in a pale-brown, streaky glass irregular and 
rounded fragments of quartz, plagioclase (andesine, labradorite), 
pyroxene, and magnetite. (PI 7, a.) The glass base is full of fine 
bubbles and is often streaky and variable in refractive index and 
composition. In No. 263737, the vesicles are large and elongated. 
In one part of this specimen elongated drops of the viscous scoria are 
visible and testify to the flowing of the molten scoria. In all of these 



78 BUEEAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

specimens of scoria bright-yellow spots occur here and there and may 
possibly be due in part to admixture of iron chloride. On immersing 
in distilled water clean particles from such colored patches, a distinct 
precipitation of silver chloride was obtained on adding silver nitrate 
to the solution. 

Specimen 263733 contains occasional vesicle fillings of red earth 
which are indurated and evidently different from the loose brown 
earth adhering to the specimen at other points. 

On these specimens, as in the above, many of the cavities of the 
scoriae are filled with rounded grains of various minerals, as quartz, 
plagioclase, garnet, magnetite, and pyroxene. These grains are appar- 
ently confined to the upper, exposed part of the scoria. In many 
cases the lower part of a scoria specimen is covered with loess which 
still adheres to it and in which evidently the fragment was originally 
embedded, with its surface protruding above the level of the loess. 
In this position wind or tide may have swept the rounded particles 
of foreign material over the scoria and lodged the observed grains 
in their present position. Such grains may also have been gathered 
by the scoria during water transport; the grains on its underside 
may be so intermixed with the present loess as to be covered up and 
not easy to separate from the finer earth. It seems probable, how- 
ever, in the absence of field data, that the first supposition is the 
correct explanation of the presence of these grains. 

No. 263737. This scoria after heating at 1,100° for 40 minutes was 
noticeably fritted. Another fragment heated to 1,400° for 1J hours, 
and cooled slowly for 1 hour to 1,100° and then held at 1,100° for 1| 
hours became a dark-green glass which contained a small quantity 
of magnetite and rarely a trace of the original mineral fragments. 
The refractive index of the glass varied greatly, from 1.505 to 1.56, 
the more deeply brown-colored fragments having the higher refractive 
index. 

Nos. 263721 , 263722, 263732. Specimen labels : Locality: Miramar. 
Material: Tierra Cocida." 

These specimens range in color from brick-red to dark-brown and 
are fine-grained, indurated earths which resemble in texture the 
brown loess of this region. Microscopically they consist of fragments 
of quartz, plagioclase (andesine, labradorite), microcline, pyroxene, 
hornblende, magnetite, colorless volcanic glass, and argillaceous 
material often deeply stained with iron oxide. The outer surface of 
these indurated fragments is often pitted; these pits are not deep 
but often contain rounded grains of magnetite, quartz, and plagio- 
clase similar to the grains observed in the cavities of the scoriae. 
They have probably been lodged in the pits by wind or wave action. 



WRIGHT-FEXNBR] 



PETEOGEAPHIC STUDY 



79 



All of these specimens contain some sodium chloride. They are 
indurated and do not break down and disintegrate as does the loess 
when immersed in water. 

Chemical analysis. No. 263722. — 





I 


la 






Sio 2 


62.49 


1.036 


Q 


23.34 


Al 2 6 3 


16.45 


.161 


Or 


13. 39 


Fe 2 3 


4.30 


.027 


Ab 


29.45 


FeO 


0.65 


.009 


An 


18.11 


MgO 


1.56 


.039 


C 


1.63 


CaO 


3.62 


.065 


Hy 


3.92 


Na 3 


3.45 


.056 


Mt 


0.46 


K 2 


2.26 


.024 


Hm 


4.00 


H 9 0- 


2.44 





11 


1.06 


H 2 + 


2.44 











Ti0 3 


0.57 


.007 




95.36 


co 2 


None 








PA 


Trace 








s 


Trace 








MnO 


None 









23.34 



60.95 



1.63 



85.92 



9.44 



100.23 



Class 



Order 



Ratios 

Sal ^ 85.92 7 
Fern - 9.44 > 1 



Q^ 23.34 3 1 
F~60. 95 < 5 > 7 



Rang — - 



Subrang 



K,0'+Na 2 0' 



CaO' 



K 9 / 

Na 2 0' 



080 5 3 
. 065 < 3 > 5 

.024 3 1 
.056 < 5 > 7 



I. Scoria, Miramar. J. G. Fairchild, United States Geological 

Survey, analyst. 
la. Molecular proportions of I. 

Except for the high percentage of water this analysis might easily 
be mistaken for that of a biotite-granite or granodiorite or quartz - 
mica-diorite. It differs from the analysis of the scoria from Alvear 
in its noticeably higher alkali content and consequent less amount 
of corundum and quartz in the norm. Both the lime and magnesia 
are higher, but their proportions do not suggest any abnormality in 
the composition, if the rock were considered an eruptive rock. The 
eruptive material predominates to so great an extent that it determines 
the general character of the analysis. 



80 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

SPECIMENS FROM THE VICINITY OF NECOCHEA 

No. 263745. Specimen label. "Locality: Playas near the sea in 
the neighborhood of Laguna Malacara, north of Necochea. Material: 
Scoriae,." 

No. 263746. Specimen label. "Locality: Coast north of Necochea, 
beyond the Boca del Moro, Laguna Malacara vicinity. Material: Scoria 
found on the surface of various playas where the Ensenadeanis exposed." 

These two samples include a number of specimens which are prac- 
tically identical in external appearance and in the thin section. In 
the hand specimen they bear a close resemblance to normal lava 
scoriae and might easily be taken for such, but under the micro- 
scope they do not resemble any known type of lava. (PL 8 7 a.) 
Fragments of quartz, plagioclase, and pyroxene are set in a streaky- 
brown glassy matrix out of which radial and irregular groups of 
acicular pyroxene crystals and less frequently of plagioclase have 
been precipitated. The pyroxene was determined optically by its 
high extinction angles, high refractive index, fairly strong birefring- 
ence, square-end section, and positive optical character. It is usually 
colorless or pale-brown in color while the larger fragmental pyroxenes 
are pale-green in color, have higher refractive index, and are usually 
rounded in outline. It is evident that not only did they not crys- 
tallize out of the glass but they were unstable in it and were attacked 
and corroded by it. The plagioclase microlites are lath-shaped 
in section and apparently andesitic in composition. They proved 
too fine for more exact determination. The glass varies in compo- 
sition from point to point, as is evident from its streakiness and 
the differences in color and refractive index (ranging from 1.515 to 
about 1 .55) . Fine dusty particles, possibly magnetite, are abundant 
in the glass and frequently become so abundant as to impair seriously 
the transparency of the glass. The cavities of these scoriae are often 
filled with rounded grains and pellets of quartz, plagioclase, magne- 
tite, chert, and limestone. Some of these grains are tightly wedged 
into the cavities and have evidently been lodged there either by 
water or wind action, possibly during the transport of the scoriae. 

Fragments of the scoriae 263745 were heated at 1,000° for 30 
minutes and showed but little change; after being held at 1,100° for 
30 minutes the product was found to be tightly sintered and the glass 
base of the original material largely crystallized to brown acicular 
crystals of medium to fairly strong birefringence, refractive index 
slightly above 1.66, and high extinction angles. These optical prop- 
erties agree with those of pyroxene. The crystals were too small for 
a more definite identification. Another portion of the scoria, heated 
to 1,200° for 2 hours and then cooled gradually to 1,050° for one- 
half hour, where it was held for 2 hours and then cooled to 1,000° 



WRIGHT-FENNBR] PETROGRAPHIC STUDY^ 81 

for one-half hour, was found to have been melted to a dark greenish- 
brown mass in which remnants of the original plagioclase and quartz 
fragments were still visible under the microscope. Some glass was 
still present but it had largely crystallized to a substance which 
agreed with pyroxene in its optical properties, so far as these could 
be ascertained. Fine specks of iron oxide were noted frequently in 
the section. 

Fragments of the scoria? 263746 heated to 1,000° for 30 minutes 
exhibited a slight change in color but were not profoundly altered. 
Held at 1,100° for 30 minutes the mass had sintered together and 
the change was more noticeable. Heated at 1,150° for 3| hours, the 
material was completely fused to a dark brownish-green, vesicular 
glass which still contained numerous fragments of the original min- 
erals. Acicular microlites resembling pyroxene in optical proper- 
ties were abundant; also iron oxide particles. The refractive index 
of the glass was unusually high, ranging from 1.55 to 1.59. It is of 
interest to note that in all these heating experiments the minerals 
which crystallize out of the melt are not those which appear in frag- 
mental state in the glass and which were present in the original 
material that was subjected to the heat treatment. The same holds 
true of the fragmental mineral grains in the scoria? from Miramar 
and Alvear. 



Chemical 


analysis. No 
I 


. 263746 
la 


• ■ 




Si0 2 


56.27 


.933 


Q 


5.49 


ALA 


12.79 


.125 


Or 


11.71 


Fe 2 3 


2.55 


.016 


Ab 


34.70 


FeO 


7.24 


.100 


An 


10.59. 


MgO 


3.14 


.078 


Di 


26.76 


CaO 


8.89 


.159 


Hy 


1.22 


Na 2 


4.07 


.066 


Mt 


3.71 


K 2 


1.96 


.021 


11 


5.02 


H 2 0- 


0.36 




Ap 


0.62 


H 2 + 


0.44 








Ti0 2 


2.62 


.033 






co 2 


None 








PA 


0.23 


.0016 






S 


Trace 








MnO 


None 










100.65 




21535°- 


-Bull. 52—12 — 


-6 







5.49] 

57.0o) 

27.981 

8.73 
0.62 J 



62.49 



37.33 



8 2 BUREAU OF AMERICAN" ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

Ratios 
Sal 62.49 ^5 ^7 „ TTT 

O r der Q = iiM.<± 5' 

uraer F 57>00 ^ 7 

K 2 0' + Na 2 0' .097 7 5 

Ran S CaCP = ^38 < T > 3--— 2 

a , K 9 0' .021 3 1 

Subran 2 Na^=^66 < 5 > 7--- 4 

I. Scoria. North of Necochea. J. G. Fairchild, United States 

Geological Survey, analyst, 
la. Molecular proportions of I. 

T This analysis places the rock on the border between Class II and 
Class III of the quantitative classification. In the Tables of Chemical 
Analyses of Igneous Rocks, by Washington, rocks ranging from sye- 
nite and trachyte to diorite and andesite and even basalt are included 
in the subrang in which this analysis falls. Characteristic of the 
analysis is the high percentage of ferrous oxide and of titanic oxide. 

SPECIMENS FROM MONTE HERMOSO 

No. 263705. Specimen label. "Locality: Monte Hermoso near 
the old lighthouse. Material: Red loess-sand of the Monte Hermoso 
formation from the lower bench just above high tide." 

A light-reddish, earthy material, in part indurated and stony, in 
part loose and friable. Under the microscope the stony part is seen 
to be composed almost entirely of microscopic calcite grains and 
clusters usually stained with iron oxide. The earthy, loose part con- 
sists largely of cryptocrystalline, argillaceous material. Dissemi- 
nated through the rock are quartz and plagioclase fragments, and 
some glass, pyroxene, hornblende, biotite, and magnetite. The 
calcareous portion of this specimen is evidently concretionary in 
origin. On immersion in water this earth crumbles to a lumpy mud. 
It gives strong chloride reaction when tested with silver nitrate 
solution. 

A small quantity of the earth was mixed with graphite and heated 
to 1,300° for a short time, after which the temperature was dropped 
to 1,100° and held there over night (16 hours). The resulting mass 
was found to have been completely fused, no trace of the original 
material being visible, and to have largely recrystallized. Pyroxene 
crystals predominated, in lath-shaped prisms, and exhibited the usual 
optical characteristics: refractive index about 1.66, birefringence, 
fairly strong, extinction angle c: jc usually high; the square-end sec- 
tion of the prisms extinguished along the diagonals. A colorless 



WEIGHT-FENNEE] PETEOGEAPHIC STUDY 83 

mineral of weaker birefringence and refractive index about 1.57 
occurred in overlapping aggregates which were too fine for satisfac- 
tory determination but may have been plagioclase. Some glass with 
refractive index about 1.525 was also present. 

No. 263707. Specimen label. " Locality: Monte Hermoso near 
the old lighthouse on the coast east of Bahia Blanca. Material: Loess- 
sand of the Monte Hermoso formation from exposure above high tide." 

A light brownish-gray, firm, but distinctly sandy, material consist- 
ing of plagioclase, quartz, and colorless glass. The plagioclase is 
occasionally fairly fresh but more often slightly decomposed and 
stained with iron oxide. Minor components are hornblende, pyrox- 
ene, apatite, and magnetite. The grains are generally of fair size 
and rounded from transportation. Scattered through the rock are 
minute needles and cryptocrystalline material which is too fine to 
identify with certainty. It is in part evidently argillaceous in char- 
acter. When immersed in water this earth crumbles into a lumpy, 
sandy mud. Tested with silver nitrate it gives a distinct chloride 
reaction. 

No. 263714. Specimen label. "Locality: Monte Hermoso near 
the old lighthouse. Material: Yellow-brown loess of the Monte Hermoso 
formation from the upper bench 5 feet above tide." 

A light-brown, porous earth, fine and even-grained and consisting 
in large measure of argillaceous material with some plagioclase, 
volcanic glass, and occasional grains of pyroxene and biotite. On 
making a concentration test with the powder of this specimen, pla- 
gioclase of different compositions, quartz, pyroxene, hornblende, bio- 
tite, apatite, zircon, magnetite, spinel (or garnet), and epidote were 
observed ; also possibly olivine and monazite and two other minerals 
which were not identified. Most of these minerals are of igneous 
origin but several are of metamorphic origin. In water this earth 
disintegrates into a lumpy clay. Its water solution gives a strong 
chloride reaction when treated with silver nitrate solution. 

This earth, heated to 1,200° for 1 hour, fused to a brown glass in 
which many of the original crystal fragments of quartz and plagioclase 
were still visible. Hematite in minute crystals was found to have 
crystallized from the melt and at certain points to be so abundant as 
to render the glass nearly opaque. The refractive index of the glass 
ranged from 1.525 to 1.54. On heating the earth to 700° for 45 
minutes its color was found to have changed from brown to brown- 
red. 

No. 263741. Specimen label. "Locality: Monte Hermoso near 
the old lighthouse. Material: Basal layer of cross-stratified sands 
{the Puelchean) upon Monte Hermoso formation ." 

An indurated, light-brown material composed apparently of a 
mixture of clay and quite coarse sand through which numerous 



84 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

pebbles of various colors (white, gray, red, brown, and black) are 
scattered. These pebbles range from 1 mm. to 1 cm. in diameter and 
are more or less rounded and distinctly water-worn. They appear 
to be in large measure quartzose and cherty in character. Under the 
microscope much argillaceous material was observed. The sand 
grains consist largely of plagioclase and quartz, both stained or 
coated with iron oxide. Isotropic glass, usually considerably altered, 
is present in noticeable quantities. Minor components are pyroxene, 
magnetite, and spinel (or garnet). Many of the pebbles consist of 
quartz which appears to be vein quartz. Other pebbles are com- 
posed of chalcedony of typical fibrous structure. The dark-red and 
brown pebbles contain so much fine iron oxide as to be practically 
opaque. They contain either quartz or chalcedony and resemble 
ferruginous chert in general appearance. 

This specimen crumbles into a muddy sand when immersed in water.' 
Its water solution gives a noticeable chloride reaction when tested 
with silver nitrate. 

No. 263743. Specimen label. " Locality: Monte Hermoso near 
the old lighthouse. Material: Volcanic ashjrom the Buelchean." 

V light-gray, gritty material of fine even grain which microscopi- 
cally consists largely of colorless volcanic glass, the refractive index 
of which is fairly constant and averages about 1.500. Some argilla- 
ceous material is present, as are occasional grains of plagioclase and 
quartz. After washing away the major part of the glass, grains of 
plagioclase, quartz, hornblende, pyroxene, biotite, magnetite, apatite, 
zircon, spinel (or garnet), and epidote were found in the concentrates. 

This ash crumbles but little in water. Its water solution, when 
tested with silver nitrate, gives an abundant silver chloride precipitate. 
The chlorine is evidently present in sodium chloride. 

SPECIMENS FROM RIO COLORADO 

Nos. 263730, 263739. Specimen labels. " Locality: Delta of the 
Bio Colorado, 100 miles south of Bahia Blanca. Material: 'Tierra 
Corida,' or burnt earth, produced by burning the 'esparto,' a rank grass 
growing in swampy ground. Area burnt about \ acre. Earth all burnt 
to tender crusts to a depth of 3 to 5 inches." 

These specimens are brick-red in color, fine-grained and indurated. 
They are full of irregular holes and cavities and carry numerous 
impressions of grass leaves. Under the microscope numerous frag- 
ments of quartz, plagioclase, pyroxene, magnetite, colorless volcanic 
glass, and abundant argillaceous material deeply impregnated with 
iron oxide are visible. Except for the red oxide of iron, this compo- 
sition is similar to that of the original loess from which these burnt 
earths were derived. Microscopically this burnt earth resembles 



WRIGHT-FENNER] PETBOGBAPHIC STUDY 85 

closely the natural tierras cocidas 263721, 263729, 263731, 263732. 
Whether the latter were produced by the burning of grass can not be 
definitely ascertained. Their relatively compact texture and the 
absence of grass-leaf impressions are not in favor of this view. 

These specimens do not disintegrate when immersed in water. 
The water solution does show, however, the presence of a fair amount 
of sodium chloride. 

No, 263739. Fragments of this artificial tierra cocida were held at 
1,100° for 2 J hours and were found to have melted to a viscous glass, 
in which many of the original mineral fragments are still visible 
under the microscope. The glass is so filled with fine particles of red 
iron oxide that it is opaque at many points. 

It is of interest to note the lack of compactness of this earth baked 
by the burning of grass. The product is extremely porous and full 
of holes, many of which evidently mark the position of former grass 
roots. The specimens of tierra cocida from Miramar and Sala- 
dillo, on the other hand, are large, compact masses; for their forma- 
tion a much greater quantity of uniform, confined heat was required 
than for the Rio Colorado material. The source of heat supply for 
the baking of the tierra cocida was probably volcanic contact 
action. This hypothesis is developed at greater length below in con- 
nection with the formation of the scoriae, but it applies with almost 
equal force to the formation of the tierra cocida of this region. 
The assumption that the large specimens of tierra cocida were 
formed simply by the action of open fires is hardly possible in view 
of the quantity of heat involved, which must have acted through a 
period of time on large masses of material to have produced the 
effects observed. 

SPECIMEN FROM SAN BLAS 

No. 263744. Specimen label. " Locality: Coast near San Bias, 
north of Rio Negro. Material: Scoria or pumice." 

A dark, reddish-brown, pumiceous scoria containing here and there 
a minute feldspar phenocryst, but otherwise aphanitic and stony in 
appearance. Under the microscope occasional phenocrysts of plagio- 
clase (labradorite, AfyAnJ and pyroxene were observed. The 
groundmass is filled with fine specks of opaque, ferruginous substance 
which renders it for the most part nontransparent. Fine laths of 
plagioclase were noted in the clearer parts of the groundmass, but 
so far as could be determined it is largely isotropic and glassy. Both 
megascopically and microscopically this specimen does not differ in 
any essential feature from many andesites, and there is no reason to 
doubt its volcanic origin. 



86 





BUEEAU OF 


AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 




[boll. 52 


hemical 


analysis. — 
















I 


la 












Si0 2 


56.09 


.930 


Q 


12.54 


12. 54 






A1A 


16.04 


.157 


Or 


10. 60 




76.17 




Fe 2 3 


8.81 


.055 


Ab 


31.02 


• 63.63 






FeO 


0.90 


.013 


An 


22.01 








MgO 


3.21 


.080 


Di 


3.72 


> 9.91 






CaO 


6.09 


.109 


Hy 


6.19 






Na 2 


3.68 


.059 


Hm 


8.80 








K 2 


1.79 


.019 


11 


1.98 


■ 11.87 


22. 40 




H 2 0- 


0.43 





Tn 


1.09 








H 2 + 


0.49 





A P 


0.62 


0.62 






Ti0 2 


1.67 


.021 












co 2 


None 















PA 


0.29 


.002 












S 


None 















MnO 


None 

















99.49 










Ratios 










Class 


Sal 76 
Fern - 22 


17 7 
40 < 1* 


5 
>3____ 


II 






Order 




Q 12 
F 63 


.54 3 
. 63 < 5 


>7~ 


.. 4 






Na 2 0' + K 2 0' . 
Ran S CaO 


078 5 
079*^3 


3 
>5" " 


3 






Subrang 


K 2 0' . 


019 3 
059 < 5 


1 
>7-- 


4 






Na 


2 0'~ . 





I. Scoria, near San Bias. J. G. Fairchild, United States Geo- 
logical Survey, analyst. 
la. Molecular proportions of I. 

This analysis places the rock in the subrang Tonalose of the new 
quantitative classification, a division in which many andesites and 
diorites occur. Characteristic for the rock is the high percentage of 
ferric oxide and low amount of FeO. This finds expression in the 
red color of the rock. Except for this unusually high Fe 2 3 , the 
analysis is that of a normal andesite. 

Kecapitulation 



THE LOESS SPECIMENS 



PetrograpJiic microscopic features. — Characteristic of all the speci- 
mens of loess in this collection is the relatively large amount of dis- 
tinctly igneous material present. Fragments of quartz, plagioclase, 
pyroxene, magnetite, and acid volcanic glass predominate and are, as 



WRIGHT-FENNER] PETROGRAPHIC STUDY 87 

a rule, remarkably fresh and unaltered. The amount of volcanic 
glass present varies within wide limits. Specimens 263743 and 
263747 consist almost entirely of colorless volcanic glass which has 
many of the characteristics of tuffaceous material. The glass frag- 
ments are splintery and irregular and often contain streaks of elon- 
gated bubbles. The refractive index of the glass and its chemical 
composition are fairly constant in each specimen; in 263743 the refrac- 
tive index averages about 1.500, in 263747 about 1.485. These re- 
fractive indices are both low and indicate a high silica content, speci- 
men 263747 being slightly more siliceous than 263743. In other loess 
specimens the glass is less abundant and may even become rare. In 
all cases it is colorless or nearly so and of very low refractive index. 
In contrast to this the glass in the scoriae is usually colored and of 
higher but variable refractive index, which ranges from about 1.51 
to 1.56 and above in some of the specimens. 

The mineral fragments in the loess are usually angular and aver- 
age about 0.1 mm. in length. They occur almost invariably in single 
isolated grains and not in crystalline aggregates nor embedded in a 
groundmass. No fragments of an eruptive rock were observed with 
certainty. 

The quartz grains are irregular in shape, and rarely, if ever, show 
crystal outlines. They are of normal quartz which has suffered 
little deformation and may be in part eruptive quartz and in 
part vein quartz. The plagioclase occurs in angular, broken indi- 
viduals twinned after the albite law and rarely after the Karlsbad 
and pericline laws. The composition of the plagioclase is not the 
same in the different specimens and often varies within wide limits 
in the same specimen. In the one«its composition may range from 
albite-oligoclase to andesine; in another, from andesine to basic 
labradorite. Zonal structure is not uncommon, but is by no means 
the rule. The pyroxene crystals are prismatic in form, generally 
pale-green in color and unusually fresh and free from alteration. 
They are ordinarily of the diopside-augite varieties and are more 
abundant than the green hornblende grains which occur in many but 
not all of the loess specimens. The magnetite is relatively abundant 
and occurs in irregular, more or less equant, grains and octahedra. 
The other minerals noted in the descriptions above are less common 
and less constant in their occurrence. The relatively fresh, unal- 
tered state of practically all the grains is noteworthy. They are 
often covered with fine, cryptocrystalline, argillaceous material, 
but do not appear to have altered into it to any appreciable degree 
in most cases. 

Chemical evidence. — The predominance of eruptive minerals in 
the loess is clearly expressed in the chemical analyses, which might 
easily be mistaken for those of eruptive rocks, were the water content 
a little lower. 



88 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

Thermal evidence. — On heating these loess specimens to tempera- 
tures between 850° and 1,050° distinct sintering occurs. The brown, 
earthy material assumes a brick-red color and shrinks to a compact, 
indurated mass, resembling brick in all its properties. Between 
1,050° and 1,150° it melts to a thick, viscous glass, in which the 
mineral fragments appear to be set as in a thick paste. On con- 
tinued heating the mineral fragments are slowly dissolved by the 
molten glass. By lowering the temperature 100° or more microlites 
crystallize out, whose optical properties agree with those of pyroxene, 
but of a variety different from that of the pyroxene fragments in 
the original loess. Occasionally minute laths of plagioclase were also 
precipitated, together with the pyroxene microlites. The glass 
thus formed is streaky and evidently variable in its composition. 
Its refractive index varies rapidly from about 1.51 to above 1.56 in 
some of the specimens. On heating the loess to the temperature at 
which melting first occurs the glass formed is practically colorless 
and contains many opaque particles of iron oxide. On raising the 
temperature the magma dissolves these particles and the resulting 
brown-colored glass has a notably higher refractive index; the more 
pronounced the color of the glass, the higher its refractive index. 

In the thermal experiments with the loess specimens it was found 
that the mode of treatment and size of the charge had great effect 
on the resulting product. Small, loose charges of powdered material 
were necessarily exposed during heating to the oxiziding effect of the 
air and the iron present was converted largely into the ferric state, 
with the result that the product was colored dark-red. With heavy 
charges of large lumps of the loess, the air found less ready access to 
all parts of the material and tlfe outer portions only of the lumps 
were thoroughly oxidized, the centers of the lumps being dark-gray 
in color and resembling the scoria in appearance. (PL 7.) In con- 
ducting thermal experiments of this kind in imitation of natural 
processes, it is highly essential that the physical conditions of experi- 
ments be as nearly like those which obtain in nature as it is possible 
to make them, otherwise totally different products may result and the 
conclusions deduced therefrom be in error to that extent. 

TIERRA COCIDA 

Petrographic microscopic features. — Under this title three distinct 
types of rock are included: 

(1) Indurated, brick-red earths, which, under the microscope, 
resemble the ordinary loess specimens except for the red particles 
which have evidently resulted from the heating of the argillaceous 
material. The mineral composition of the tierras cocidas both with 
respect to kind and size is practically identical with that of the 



WRlGHt-FBNNERl PETROGRAPHIC STUDY 89 

loess. Chemically also they are practically identical, as analyses 
263717 and 263729 show. The percentage of H 2 in 263729 is lower 
than that in 263717 as was to be expected. In both the amount 
of FeO present is very slight. This is also true of analysis 263722 
of the tierra cocida from Miramar and is in accord with the condi- 
tions under which the tierras cocidas have probably been formed. 
Many of the specimens of tierra cocida are so large and compact 
that one is forced, in explaining their mode of formation, to assume 
long-continued and confined heating at a fairly high temperature, 
such as would be encountered near the contact of an intrusive 
igneous or volcanic mass, but not beneath an open fire made of grass 
or small timber. 

(2) Some of the scoriae contain bright-red patches, which resemble 
the tierras cocidas superficially, but which on closer examination 
are seen to be glassy and to have been melted, just as the gray parts 
of the scoriae have been melted, the chief difference between the two 
parts being the state of oxidation of the iron. These will be con- 
sidered below, together with the scoriae to which they belong. 

(3) Brown ferruginous earths (specimen 263710) have also been 
considered tierra cocida by some investigators. A careful micro- 
scopic examination of these specimens has shown that they are 
simply loess in which ferruginous material abounds (ferruginous 
concretion) and acts as a weak cementing material, causing the 
specimens to appear more indurated than the surrounding loess. 
On immersing such specimens in water they are seen to crumble 
and break down readily. The red tierras cocidas or baked earths 
do not crumble in the least under these conditions. 

THE SCORLE 

Microscopic petrographic features. — Under the microscope the 
scoriae from both Miramar and Necochea exhibit abnormal features. 
Irregular fragments of quartz, plagioclase, pyroxene, and mag- 
netite occur embedded in a colorless-to-pale-brown glass, out of which 
aggregates of acicular crystals, probably pyroxene, crystallize. The 
mineral fragments have been considered phenocrysts by some 
observers. On this assumption the rock would be classed with the 
andesites and has been described as such. The chemical analyses 
of the present paper might be considered confirmatory evidence in 
favor of this view. A careful microscopic examination of the mineral 
fragments, however, precludes this hypothesis. The mineral frag- 
ments are broken and irregular in outline. (PI. 7, a and pi. 8, a.) They 
-were evidently not stable in the molten glass and were attacked and 
dissolved in part by the same. The plagioclase feldspars are not 
uniform in composition. In the same microscope-field fragments 



90 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

of oligoclase and labradorite can often be seen, the fragments of 
both being homogenous throughout and without zonal texture. 
Such rapid variation in composition in the nonzoned phenocrysts 
of effusive rocks is unknown to the writers and would be abnormal 
in view of the mode of formation of phenocrysts. Zonal structure 
does occur in some of the grains and the composition follows then 
the usual succession, with the more anorthic plagioclase in the 
center of the grains. The zoned individuals are often broken across 
so that the whole series of compositions was exposed to the action 
of the melted glass. Taken as a whole the mineral fragments in the 
scoriae resemble in kind, in size, and in general character and outline 
the mineral fragments in the loess. In the specimens of scoriae from 
Miramar, however, there is a decided difference in quantitative 
mineral composition between the scoriae and the loess adjacent to 
them. This difference also found expression in the thermal behavior 
of the two materials as noted above under specimen 263731. 

The character of the glass base is another feature which is difficult 
to reconcile with the view that the scoriae are normal andesites. The 
glass base is streaky and varies rapidly in composition, its refractive 
index ranging from about 1.51 to 1.56. In the glass resulting from 
the cooling of a normal lava such great differences have not been 
described and are not to be expected. The presence of fine particles 
of iron oxide embedded in a colorless glass base in some parts of the 
scoriae and their absence in other parts, whereby the glass is colored 
brown and has a higher refractive index, is strikingly like the 
features observed in the loess specimens which had been heated at 
different temperatures. 

It is interesting to note that the glass obtained by heating the 
loess and burnt earth specimens has about the same refractive 
indices and variation in refractive indices as the glass of the scoria 
from Miramar. In the glass of the Necochea scoria the refractive 
indices are slightly higher than those of the Miramar glass and the 
Necochea scoria is correspondingly less siliceous in composition. 
The mineral fragments in the melted loess specimens are practically 
identical in size and kind with the mineral fragments in the scoriae. 
In both cases the fragments are unstable in the melted glass and have 
been partly dissolved by it. The new microlites which crystallize 
from the melt agree with pyroxene and have the same general aspect 
in both cases. The products differ chiefly in the state of oxidation 
of the iron, but this difference is evidently due, as noted above, to the 
different conditions under which the products were formed, the 
conditions of experiment not agreeing in all details with those of 
nature under which the scoriae were formed. 

Chemical evidence. — The chemical evidence given in the analyses 
263728 and 263746 does not of itself preclude a volcanic origin for 



wright-fennbr] 



PETROGRAPHIC STUDY 



91 



the scoriae. In both analyses the ferrous iron predominates over 
the ferric iron; in this respect the analyses differ notably from those 
of the tierras cocidas. 

Two analyses by Dr. E. Herrero Ducloux cited by Col. Antonio A. 
Romero/ of a "tierra cocida" and an "escoria" from Chapadmalal 
do not show this relation between the iron oxides. For the sake of 
comparison these analyses have been expressed in the quantitative 
system and both found to belong to the same subrang; but in this 
subrang no analysis of an igneous rock has yet been found to occur. 
This in itself is indicative of the abnormal character of the rocks. 

Chemical analysis, of Dr. E. Herrero Ducloux. — 



86. 33 





00 


a 








Si0 2 


66. 600 


1.104 


Q 


45.59 


45. 59 1 


AlA 


16.350 


.160 


Or 


1.95] 




Fe 2 3 


5.030 


.031 


Ab 


14.25 


34.11 


FeO 


0.350 


.005 


An 


17.91 J 




MgO 


1.422 


.035 


C 


6.63 


6.63 


CaO 


3.880 


.069 


Hy 


3.52 


■ 


Na 2 


1.947 


.0314 


Mt 


.70 




K 2 


0.325 


.0035 


Hm 


4.48 




H 2 0- 


0.651 




11 


.30 




H 2 + 


2.715 




Ap 


.50 


, 


Ti0 2 


0.180 


.002 


NaCl 


.50 




PA 


0.211 


.0014 








CI 


0.340 


.001 








MnO 


0.019 











9.50 



100. 02 

Ratios 

Sal 86. 33 7 

Uass Fern - 9.50 > 1 * 

„ . Q 45.59 5 3 

Order F = 347Tl <3>5"'- " 3 

-o KA + Na 2 0' -0306 3 1 

Ran g CaO- = .-0643<5 > 7--- 4 

a , K 2 0' .0035 1 

Subran S Na^' = .-0271 < 7 b 

OO. Tierra cocida. Chapadmalal, E. H. Ducloux, analyst, 
a. Molecular proportions of OO. 

In calculating this analysis, the rules prescribed by the authors 
of the quantitative classification for the calculation of the CI were 
not followed by the writers. This procedure would have indicated 

1 In Anales del Museo National de Buenos Aires, xxn (ser. iii, t. xv), pp. 11-31 (separate, 1911). 



92 



BTJEEAtf OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 



[bull. 52 



the presence of a relatively large amount of sodalite together with 
a large excess of quartz, which is obviously contrary to experience. 
The tests with silver nitrate cited above indicate that the chlorine 
is contained in NaCl, which has probably been derived from sea 
water, and this assumption was made in calculating the analysis 
in order to obtain the most favorable conditions for proving the 
eruptive nature of the rock. But even with this assumption, the 
analysis does not resemble that of any known lava. 
Chemical analysis, of Dr. E. Herrero Ducloux. — 
01 a 



Si0 2 


65. 950 


1.094 


Q 


43.84 


A1A 


15.010 


.147 


Or 


2.90 


Fe 2 3 


4.750 


.0297 


Ab 


10.36 


FeO 


.410 


.0057 


An 


23.96 


MgO 


1.872 


.046 


C 


3.67 


CaO 


4.872 


.087 


Hy 


4.63 


Na 2 


1.224 


.0197 


Mt 


.86 


K 2 


.488 


.0052 


Hm 


4. 16 


H 2 0- 


0.789 




11 


.30 


H 2 + 


3.370 








Ti0 2 


.160 


.002 






PA 


0.062 


.0004 






CI 


0.034 


.001 






MnO 


0.021 


.0002 







43.84 



37.22 



3.67 



84.73 



9.95 



99.012 



Ratios 



Class 



Order 



Rang 



Subrang 



Sal 
Fem : 

Q 

F = 
KA + NaA 
CaO' 
KA 



NaA 



84.73 7 

9.95 > r"-" 
43.84 5 3 
37.22 < 3 > 5 
.0249 3 1 
.086 < 5 > 7 
.0052 3 1 
.0197 < 5 > 7 



OI. Escoria. Chapadmalal, E. H. Ducloux, analyst, 
a. Molecular proportions of OI. 

The calculation of this analysis indicates its close similarity with 
the first. Both analyses belong to subrangs for which no representa- 
tive has yet been found in normal lavas. These rocks are abnormal 
and the conclusion of Dr. H. Bucking and Colonel Romero that the 
rocks are normal andesites can not be considered justifiable. 

Scoria from San Bias. — Both the microscopic and chemical evidence 
prove that this rock is a normal andesitic lava. It is unusually 



WRIGHT-FENNHR] PETROGRAPHIC STUDY 93 

vesicular and even pumiceous but no evidence was obtained to sug- 
gest even a relation between this rock and the scoriae from Miramar 
and Necochea. 

General Conclusions and Summary 

In the foregoing pages the attempt has been made to present the 
data of observation and experiment on the collection of rocks sub- 
mitted to the writers for determination. Throughout the investiga- 
tion but little attention has been given to the works of others on the 
same general problem. The present writers have not personally 
studied the rocks in the field and are not in a position, therefore, to 
discuss the more general problem of which the rock problem is only 
a part. In the descriptions attention has accordingly been directed 
to the facts of observation rather than to the possible theories of 
genesis which, without a definite basis of fact, become simply matters 
of opinion. 

The most important facts noted during the present investigation 
are: 

(1) The loess consists in large measure of volcanic and eruptive 
material. Siliceous volcanic glass is present in practically every 
specimen and may become so abundant that it constitutes 90 per 
cent of the whole. The minerals present are remarkably fresh and 
unaltered. The amount of argillaceous material present is relatively 
small in most of the specimens. These facts may be considered 
indicative of tremendous and widespread volcanic activity of the 
explosive type during or just preceding the formation of the loess. 
The variation in composition of the loess may be due in part to the 
effect of wind action on original tuffaceous deposits, the wind blowing 
the lighter matter farther away from the source, and thus producing 
a rough separation of the components in some instances. That 
volcanic action was widespread and not confined to one vent is 
evident from the enormous quantity of volcanic material in 'the loess. 

(2) The specimens of tierra cocida are, for the most part, com- 
posed simply of loess fragments which have been indurated and 
reddened by heat action between 850° and 1,050°. Except for the 
red particles which have resulted from the oxidation of the iron in the 
argillaceous material of the loess, the loess and most of the tierra 
cocida are identical in general character and composition. Analyses 
of both are closely similar and, except for the high water content, 
might be mistaken for analyses of igneous rocks. This is well shown 
by specimens 263717, 263718, 263729 from Alvear, whose micro- 
scopic features, behavior on heating, sodium chloride content, and 
the chemical analyses of 263717 and 263729 are as nearly alike as can 
possibly be expected from such material and prove their original 



94 BUREAU OF AMERICAN" ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

identity conclusively. Under the title "tierra cocida" specimen 
263710 has been included. It is, however, simply a loess rich in 
limonite, which forms the cementing material and renders the frag- 
ments slightly harder and more resistant than the adjacent loess. 

Specimen 263731 has also been labelled " tierra cocida," but it 
belongs strictly to the melted scoriae. 

THE SCORLE 

These rocks are the most interesting specimens in the collection 
and have been the subject of much discussion in the literature. 
They are abnormal in type and do not agree with any known eruptive 
rock or lava in their microscopic features. They contain fragments 
of various minerals (quartz, plagioclase, pyroxene, magnetite) 
embedded in a streaky glass base, out of which pyroxene microlites, 
different in composition from the large pyroxene fragments, have 
crystallized at certain points. The composition of the plagioclase 
fragments is not constant and in extreme cases may pass in the same 
thin section from oligoclase in one grain to labradorite in an adj acent 
grain. Zonal structure is present in some of the grains and these 
may then be broken across so that the different zones are in contact 
with the glass. The feldspars show indications, moreover, of resorp- 
tion by the molten glass base and were evidently not crystallized 
from it as they are in a normal lava. (PL 7, a and pi. 8, a.) Prac- 
tically the only microlites which have crystallized from the glass 
have the optical properties of a pyroxene which is of a different 
color, refractive index, and composition from the larger fragmental 
pyroxenes. The glass base itself is streaky and variable in compo- 
sition, as is shown by the variation in its refractive index from point 
to point. (n= 1.51to 1.56 and above.) Variations of this magnitude 
in the glass base of a normal lava have not been recorded. The 
minerals occurring as fragments in the scoriae are practically identical 
with those observed in the loess, both as to kind, size, and compo- 
sition. The melted loess products obtained by heating charges in 
the electric furnace resemble the scoriae in all details except for the 
degree of oxidation of the iron; with large masses products were 
obtained in which the iron was less oxidized and at the center of 
large lumps were practically identical with the scoriae. The scoriae 
are not, in general, of the same composition as the loess immediately 
adjoining them and behave differently on being heated to high tem- 
peratures. (Specimen 263721.) This proves that part of the scoriae 
at least were not formed in situ from the adjacent loess but have been 
transported to their present position. No zone of transition between 
the scoriae and the loess was observed ; in view of the high temperature 
to which the scoriae must have been heated (1,050° or above) and the 
ease with which the loess is reddened (at 800° and above), this unaltered 



WRIGHT-FEN ner] . PETROGRAPHIC STUDY 95 

condition of the loess is another proof that these particular scoriae 
were not formed in situ. The scoriae of specimen 263731 do contain, 
however, in some of the vesicles red baked loess, which, in turn, is of 
a different composition from the friable brown loess adhering to 
other parts of the same specimen. This indicates again transporta- 
tion of the scoriae; also that at some period in their formation these 
scoriae came in contact with the loess and that the temperature at 
that time was between 850° and 1,050°. No evidence was found in 
this specimen that the scoria had melted down the loess. 

Taken as a whole the evidence recorded above proves that the 
scoriae are not normal volcanic scoriae. They are not lava in the 
ordinary sense of the word. But they have been melted down under 
conditions which protected them from oxidation; they were not 
melted down, in short, in the open air, otherwise the iron oxide would 
have passed largely into red hematite as in all the experiments cited 
above. The temperatures and quantity of heat required for melting 
the large masses of Necochea scoriae postulate long-continued heating 
at a very high temperature, much higher, in fact, than is possible in 
the open air under ordinary conditions. This fact, together with the 
observed lack of oxidation of the scoriae, precludes the possibility that 
they have been formed by the melting down of loess by bonfires or 
any type of fire in the open air. 

The microscopic and thermal evidence practically proves, how- 
ever, that the scoriae have been produced by the melting down of an 
original clastic material which resembled in all its details the loess of 
this region. The observed facts indicate, in brief, that the scoriae 
are simply fused loess, melted under conditions which protected the 
molten mass from oxidation. 

In this connection the relatively local distribution of the scoriae 
near the coast is significant. Had the scoriae been transported from 
the far West their size and number would naturally increase in 
that direction, but the field observations show that the opposite is 
the case. 

In seeking for a possible explanation of these phenomena and, in 
particular, of the genesis of the scoriae, the writers have been forced 
to adopt the following hypothesis as the only reasonable one in view 
of the evidence at hand. This is presented, not as an established 
theory, but only as a tentative hypothesis which needs further 
verification but which accounts satisfactorily for the observed facts. 
According to this hypothesis the loess formation was intruded by 
igneous masses which melted down the adjacent loess and formed 
the present black scoriae. These intrusions may have been sub- 
marine or beneath the land area. In either case oxidation would 
not have been serious, although a submarine extrusion might favor 
less oxidation and more pronounced vesicular character of the 



96 BUREAU OP AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

scoriae than a subaerial extrusion. In view of the exceedingly large 
amount of volcanic glass and minerals of igneous origin in the loess 
of this region, the assumption that volcanic action has been directly- 
responsible for the formation of these scoriae and also of the tierra 
cocida, in the manner suggested above, is not unreasonable. It 
is surprising, however, that the present collection does not contain 
any specimens of normal lava from either Necochea or Miramar. 
This may possibly be due to the fact that the collection is a small 
one and probably does not include all the rock types which occur in 
these localities; or it may be that the volcanic extrusion was of the 
explosive type, whereby the lava (possibly siliceous in character and 
largely glassy) was shattered and reduced to dust, which fell to the 
surface as volcanic ash and now constitutes an integral part of the 
loess formation. Under these conditions the cooler, viscous, melted 
loess fragments would remain intact and be ejected as scoriae and 
resist attrition and breaking down more effectively than the shat- 
tered volcanic lava. 

Similar contact phenomena between lava intrusions and adjacent 
rhyolite pumice breccia have been observed in Nevada by Professor 
Iddings. 1 There basaltic lava was plainly visible and the mode of 
formation of the contact scoriae was obvious. The broken mineral 
fragments occurred embedded in the glassy base which, in some of 
the sections, still showed the brecciated character of the original 
material. These relations are clearly stated in the following para- 
graph from the general description of the rocks from this region by 
Professor Iddings in the monograph cited above (p. 183) : 

"Thin section 200 is the most interesting of all the alteration 
products, on account of its undoubted relations to the basalt and its 
higher degree of metamorphism ; it is traceable directly to the same 
deposit of pumice as 199, and lies in apparently undisturbed layers 
directly over basalt, which did not in this instance reach the surface, 
but thoroughly altered the overlying pumice, breaking through it 
lower down the slope. In thin section it is a whitish gray, fine- 
grained breccia of about the same grain as 199. Under the micro- 
scope the porphyritical crystals are seen to be angular fragments of 
quartz, sanidine, and plagioclase of the same size and abundance as 
those in the last-named section; pyroxene, however, is wanting and 
only a little biotite is present, besides a single grain of garnet. The 
groundmass has retained its brecciated character, though the pumice 
fragments have lost their original form and appear to merge into one 
another; but the degree of crystallization is far more advanced, 
hardly any portion of it being without influence on polarized light. 

1 See Arnold Hague, Geology of the Eureka District, Nevada. U. S. Geological Survey Monographs, 
No. 20, 381-385, 1892. 



WRIGHT-FENNER] PETROGRAPHIC STUDY 97 

As a natural result of its brecciated character the structure is most 
varied, which is the more pronounced between crossed nicols. It is 
partly spherulitic and axiolitic and partly cryptocrystalline and in 
places it is microcrystalline in irregular grains." 

In many respects this description might serve for the thin sections 
of the Miramar and Necochea scorias. Similar irregular broken 
fragments of quartz, plagioclase, and other minerals are present and 
the groundmass is variable both in composition and in degree of 
crystallization. The hypothesis suggested above for the genesis of 
the scorisB of Necochea and Miramar is therefore not new to geology 
and is without question a probable working hypothesis for rocks of a 
similar nature in any other part of the world. 

Petrographic-Microscopic Examination of Bones Collected 
by Doctor Hrdlicka 

The writers received in addition to the above collection of rocks 
a small collection of bones with the request that their mineral com- 
position be determined so far as possible. The specimens were 
examined accordingly in powder form and no attention was given to 
the structural features of the bones. In many of the bones fine 
mineral particles from the adjacent loess, in which they probably 
occurred, were observed but, as these minerals bear no relation to the 
alteration of the bones, their presence is not recorded in the descrip- 
tions below. 

Practically only one type of alteration was observed. The cryp- 
tocrystalline bone substance is replaced by a mixture of micro-crys- 
talline calcite and of a weakly-to-medium birefracting substance of 
refractive index about 1.61 and resembling in appearance the mineral 
described under specimen 263738 above. In some of the specimens 
the calcite is not present and the weakly birefracting substance is 
proportionately more abundant. In all of the specimens a consider- 
able amount of fine, low-refracting, often isotropic or cryptocrystalline, 
material occurs but is too fine for satisfactory determination. In 
the following paragraphs the results of the examinations of the 
powdered specimens of bone are recorded briefly. 

The conclusions which may be indicated by these observations 
have probably been given in the foregoing Hrdlicka- Willis report, 
which the present writers have not seen. 

No. 263748. Specimen label. " 'Fossil' man. Human hones 
from the Necochea skeleton." 

In the powder of this bone fine, microcrystalline calcite is abundant. 
The calcite is coarser-grained in this specimen than in any of the 
other bones in the collection. Grains of a weakly- to-medium bire- 
fracting substance, usually pale-yellow in transmitted light and of 

21535°— Bull. 52—12 7 



98 BUKEAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

average refractive index about 1.61, are common and have evidently 
resulted from the alteration of the original bone substance. In optical 
properties this substance resembles that described under specimen 
263738. Fine grains of an isotropic, low-refracting substance also 
occur but are too fine for identification. 

No. 263749. Specimen label. " Weathered modern bone from playa 
of fossil man,' near Laguna Malacara, north of Necochea." 

This bone contains abundant cryptocrystalline calcite which has 
evidently replaced much of the original bone substance. The weakly 
birefracting substance, noted above and probably phosphatic in 
composition, is also present in considerable quantities. 

No. 263753. Specimen label. " Cow, very recent; exposed to ele- 
ments; lower jaw. Playa Peralta, near Mar del Plata." 

In this specimen no calcite was observed. The material consists 
chiefly of a cryptocrystalline, weakly birefracting, low-refracting sub- 
stance which is probably slightly altered bone substance. Evidently 
this bone has suffered but slight alteration. 

No. 263754. Specimen label. il Rib. Necochea 'fossil' man." 

Contains both cryptocrystalline calcite and the weakly birefracting 
substance noted above. Has evidently been altered considerably. 

No. 263755. Specimen label. " La Tigra skull." 

In powder form this bone closely resembles the foregoing. In both 
specimens the calcite is evidently a replacement product. 

No. 263756. Specimen label. "Ovejero. Skull No. 1." 

Practically no calcite was observed in this specimen. The powder 
consists largely of a fine cryptocrystalline, weakly birefracting, low- 
refracting substance which is probably bone substance. The material 
is evidently not highly altered. 

No. 263757. Specimen label. " Fontezuelas skull." 

Contains both cryptocrystalline calcite and the weakly birefracting 
phosphatic material, besides a lower-refracting isotropic substance. 
This bone has obviously suffered considerable change. 

No. 263758. Specimen label. "Homo pampseus. Necochea." 

Resembles 263755 closely and has evidently suffered the same kind 
of change. 

No. 263761. Specimen label. "Sea lion; very recent. Punta 
Mogote." 

But very little calcite was observed in this specimen and was then 
associated with yellow, iron-stained argillaceous material. A weakly 
birefracting substance not unlike that described in many of the 
specimens above constitutes the major part of the powder. 

Carnegie Institution of Washington, 

Geophysical Laboratory, Washington, D. C. 



VI. PECULIAR STONE INDUSTRIES OF THE ARGENTINE 

COAST 



By Ales Hrdlicka 



Historical Account 
the " split-stone" industry 

During 1908, while studying the sedimentary formations of the 
coast of the Province of Buenos Aires, Professor Ameghino discovered 
certain peculiar stone implements, which he regarded as of a hitherto 
unknown type ; their seemingly primitive form and especially their 
apparent association with earlier geologic deposits led him to the 
conclusion that they are the work of a geologically ancient man of 
this region, assigned by him to the Pliocene. 

The first report of this discovery made by Ameghino appeared in 
1909. * Referring to Punta Porvenir, a point on the coast a few 
miles south of Mar del Plata, he says : 

"This locality, the mammal fauna of which indicates the upper 
part of the Ensenadean or the lowest portion of the Bonaerean 
formation, is of special importance, on account of the quantity of 
fossil bones contained in the less compact superficial sand, and 
because of the proof that this accumulation of bones is due to the 
man of those times. . . . 

' ' This tongue of land was at that epoch a seashore site {paradero) 
of man. I collected there the carapace of a Sclerocaly'ptus pseudor- 
natus, which was found standing vertical, resting on the caudal end, 
with the dorsal aspect toward the sea and the ventral concavity 
toward the west, looking as if it had been made to serve as a shelter 
against the sea winds. The interior of this carapace contained no 
skeletal parts of the animal, but there were bones of small ruminants, 
parted longitudinally, and other extraneous remains, while the border 
of the posterior aperture of the carapace, on which it rested, shows 
artificial cuts. About the carapace, to a rather considerable dis- 
tance, were found artificially split bones of mammals, burned bones, 
marine shells which appeared to have been subjected to the action 
of fire, and very crude stone implements of an unknown type." 

1 Ameghino, F., Las formaciones sedimentarias de la region litoral de Mar del Plata y Chapalmalan; 
in Armies del Museo National de Buenos Aires, xvn (ser. iii, t. x), 1909, pp. 343-428. 

99 



100 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

On page 398 of the same report Professor Ameghino returns to the 
subject of these worked stones and expresses the view that "The 
larger pebbles were utilized by the man of that epoch [Inter-Ensena- 
dean], giving origin to a stone industry entirely distinct from any of 
those known up to date. This industry is in certain respects more 
primitive than that of the eoliths of Europe." 

In April, 1910, the same author published an article devoted 
entirely to the "New Stone Industry." 1 The principal parts of this 
report are here quoted. 

In 1908, at Mar del Plata, "I had the good fortune to find an 
ancient stone industry different from all those hitherto known. . . . 

"This industry comes from the inferior Pampean and from the 
middle part of the Ensenadean, i. e., the eolo-marine strata cor- 
responding to the Inter-Ensenadean marine transgression . . . 

"It is in these eolo-marine strata that is found the debris of 
Homo pampseus, and it is also from these same strata that the stone 
objects here dealt with are derived. It is therefore the stone industry 
of the Homo pampseus, who at tins epoch inhabited the seashore. 
These stone objects are nearly always isolated, and lay almost 
invariably on the surface of the eolo-marine bed from which they have 
become exposed by the denuding action of water during a period of 
thousands of years." 

However, not quite all the implements gathered by Ameghino lay 
on the surface of the eolo-marine Inter-Ensenadean strata; "there 
were also found such as were still inclosed in the original deposit, 
and among those that were already loose there are some which still 
retain a strongly adhering, fine and often very hard grit, characteristic 
of these deposits." 

As to the material from which these stone objects were made, it 
"consists [p. 190] of rolled and elongated pebbles of quartz, porphyry, 
basalt, phonolith, and other eruptive rocks, which man gathered from 
the seashore at low tide. These are absolutely foreign to the country 
and to-day are not found except in the Inter-Ensenadean layer. The 
material is entirely similar to that which constitutes the great forma- 
tion of rolled pebbles that covers the surface of Patagonia, and without 
doubt a strong marine current which ran along the coast at that time 
transported these pebbles from Patagonia up to Mar del Plata." 

As to the characteristics of this stone industry, Ameghino still 
considers it (p. 192) "different from all those that are known." 

In the way of further information about the locality of the finds, 
Ameghino states (p. 192) that — 

"Mar del Plata is a point or peninsula formed by a heavy stratum 
of Paleozoic quartzite which projects into the sea. This mass is 

i Ameghino, F., Une nouvelle Industrie lithique: L'industrie de la pierre fendue dans le Tertiare de 
la region littorale au sud de Mar del Plata; in Anales del Museo National de Buenos Aires, xx (ser. iii, 
t. Xin), 19U, pp. 189-204 (separate, 1910). 



hedliCka] STONE INDUSTRIES OP THE ARGENTINE COAST 101 

covered by sedimentary deposits consisting of red Pampean and pre- 
Pampean (Araucanean) clays, and is exposed only at a number of 
points of limited extent. This coarse-grained quartzite is the result 
of the transformation of sedimentary deposits of coarse sand and 
gravel and presents a texture and density which make dressing it 
impossible. Man who in former times inhabited this locality was not 
able, therefore, to employ this material for the manufacture of his 
implements. 

"But at the epoch of the Inter-Ensenadean transgression the sea 
threw on the beach water-worn pebbles which the marine currents 
brought from the coast of Patagonia. These pebbles fractured with 
greater facility. 

"The Homo pampseus probably commenced to gather these stones 
and to break them between two blocks of quartzite, in order to utilize 
the pointed and edged chips which resulted. Later, and with ex- 
perience, there came to him the idea that these pebbles could be 
fashioned in a more uniform manner by making a cutting edge at 
one of their extremities. Not knowing true flaking by percussion, 
but only breaking by means of strokes with a stone hammer and with 
the help of a block of quartzite employed as an anvil, he tried, prob- 
ably, to split the pebbles, supporting them on the anvil-stone. He 
attempted this splitting not as in simple breaking, but by strokes at 
one end of the long axis of the pebble." 

The technique of making the implements Ameghino explains as fol- 
lows (p. 193) : 

"I shall call the two ends of the long axis of the pebbles its two poles. 
That placed on the anvil-stone was the inferior pole, while the other, 
destined to receive the blows of the hammer, was the superior one. 
To obtain the desired instruments, the man made a selection from 
among the pebbles, etc., always utilizing the more elongated and 
flattened ones, one extremity of which was to be held by the hand, 
while the other was to be fashioned to a cutting edge. The larger 
end, the one easier to hold in the hand, was the inferior pole, by which 
the pebble was placed upright on the block of quartzite. The other 
end, which pointed upward, was the superior pole, on which the 
operator directed blows until he obtained the form he desired." 

At this point Ameghino explains the mode of production of the 
anvil-stones (pp. 193-194): 

"Naturally, during the first trials at shaping the stone, the rounded 
butt of the pebble, which was placed on the block of quartzite, must 
have tended to slip thereon. Possibly in some blocks a natural 
depression insured a vertical position of the pebble in such a way that 
the stone could not slide, notwithstanding the blows of the hammer. 

"From that moment man chose pieces of quartzite which appeared 
to him most suitable and cut into their surfaces small elliptic cavities 



102 BUBEAU OP AMEBICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

of different sizes, destined to receive the inferior pole of the pebbles 
to be chipped, in order to keep them in position. Holding the pebble 
in place and upright with one band, he grasped the hammer with the 
other and directed a sharp blow on the superior pole. As a result of 
this first blow there were detached from the superior pole or end two 
flakes, smaller or larger, according to the force of the blow, one on 
each of the opposite large faces of the pebble. Almost invariably 
one of these flakes was much larger than the other. The two facets 
or planes produced by the separation of the two flakes converged 
upward, terminating in a small cutting edge. Repeating the blows, 
there was finally obtained at the superior pole of the pebble a trans- 
verse cutting edge." 

As to the occurrence of similar types in other parts of the world, 
the author says (p. 195) : 

"It is true that there have been found elsewhere some more or less 
similar objects, but they are very rare, isolated, their manufacture 
not constituting a veritable industry. The form is accidental, and 
the pieces were not obtained by the procedure that I have described, 
which consists in cleaving the stone on an anvil with the aid of a 
percussor. This procedure is not, to my knowledge, as yet known 
from any other region, and it is for this reason that I designated the 
industry as the split-stone industry (Vindustrie de la pierre f endue.) " 

The newly discovered stone industry involves, in the opinion of 
Ameghino (p. 195), "three characteristic pieces: The chisel or hatchet- 
chisel with a transverse cutting edge, which is the instrument desired; 
and the two agents employed for its fabrication, namely, the anvil- 
stone and the hammer." 

Further details as to the characteristics of these three varieties of 
stones are given as follows (p. 196) : 

"The hatchet- wedge or chisel is the simplest instrument that one 
can imagine; very often a single blow on the superior pole of the 
pebble sufficed to make it. Notwithstanding this simplicity, how- 
ever, the instrument presents a very large variety of forms, due 
probably to the differences in shape, size, length, or thickness of the 
pebbles employed, as well as to their dissimilarity of nature and 
texture, from which it often resulted that they fractured in a different 
manner or direction from that which the operator desired. Often the 
blow of the hammer not only detached one or two flakes from the 
superior pole intended for the cutting edge, but the counter-shock of 
the anvil also detached flakes from the inferior pole, destined for the 
handle of the piece, and in consequence the implement occasionally 
remained unutilized. At other times the blow of the hammer split 
the pebble from one end to the other, or crushed it, reducing it to use- 
less fragments. 



hrdliCka] STONE INDUSTRIES OF THE ARGENTINE COAST 103 

"The hatchet-chisel [p. 197] was an instrument for all uses; it 
served as a knife for cutting, as a wedge or hatchet for breaking the 
bones, as chisel, scraper, rasp, etc. When the edge became dull by 
usage it was revived by retouching, and when the wear became so 
great that the edge could no more be repaired the stone was utilized 
as a hammer. The size of this implement is variable; the smallest 
are no longer than 2 or 3 cm. ; those of medium size, more abundant, 
measure from 4 to 6 cm. ; the larger ones are from 6 to 8 cm., and 
some examples attain 10 cm. in length." 

As to the anvil-stones, they (p. 198) "present so great a variety 
of forms that it can be said there are no two alike. Some are flat, 
almost like slabs; others are flat but very thick; others are circular 
in contour and flattened; others are rounded, and still others elon- 
gated, quadrate, ovoid, cylindrical, conical, etc. Some are nothing 
but angular blocks resulting from the natural breakage of the stone, 
while others show wear or even rolling by water. Some, especially 
among the smallest, have no more than a single cavity, but others 
have several, their number extending to more than a score. Some- 
times one of the faces of the anvil-stone is slightly concave and much 
worn, as if some very hard substance had been triturated upon it. 
Their size is also variable, the smallest measuring not more than 
6 to 7 cm. in diameter, while the larger ones reach considerable 
dimensions. One of the largest and most notable was found by 
Carlos Ameghino at Purita Mogote; I consider it a monument of its 
epoch. It is a nearly rectangular block measuring 25 cm. in length, 
15 cm. in breadth by the same in height, and carrying some two 
score of cavities distributed over nearly all its surfaces. At Punta 
Porvenir I saw still interred in the Pampean earth, a large block of 
quartzite in the form of a slab, of which the part that protruded above 
the earth had more than half a square meter of surface and showed 
its flat upper part covered with similar cavities. . . . 

"The hammers are rolled pebbles of very hard stone whose elon- 
gated form permitted easy grasping by one extremity, and striking 
with the other the pebbles to be shaped, which were steadied with 
one hand in the hollows made in the anvils." 

Besides the presence of the three above-described classes of stone 
utensils, the hatchet-wedge or chisel, the anvil-stone, and the ham- 
mer, there are according to the author, two other incontestable 
proofs of the special technique which he outlines (p. 201): 

"The first is, that nearly all the hatchet-chisels present on the end 
opposite that of the edge a small surface showing characteristic traces 
of bruising, indirect results of blows of the hammer; there is the 
clearest evidence that these contusions were produced by the counter- 
shocks of the anvils on the surface of these inferior ends of the pebbles 



104 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

placed in the cavities of the anvil-stones. The second proof consists 
of the presence on stones, split from end to end, of two conchoid 
facets, one at each end, without a transverse interruption between 
their fields of irradiation." 

In conclusion, Professor Ameghino declares (p. 203) : 

"The facts shown seem to me to be more than sufficient to justify 
my first affirmation that we are in the presence of a new stone 
industry." 

Some attention is given to minor worked stone objects, flakes, 
etc. (pp. 203-204): 

"From the fabrication of this hatchet-chisel implement there 
resulted, as was natural, a very large number of flakes of all forms* 
which were utilized for cutting, scraping, or perforating, and on which 
use has produced characteristic wear and defects which often give 
these flakes interesting forms." 

No mention is made of the numerous quartzite implements, etc., 
which occur in the same localities. 

In a still more recent publication, Ameghino 1 makes further remarks 
on the stone industry under consideration. He speaks of (p. 23) "the 
fireplaces ^nd crude worked stones which our faraway ancestors left 
buried in the Miocene and Pliocene layers of Monte Hermoso, Chapad- 
malal, Mar del Plata, and Necochea." And again (p. 24) he reiterates : 
"The stone industry of the Homo pampseus consists of oblong peb- 
bles chipped at one extremity and of an aspect still more primitive 
than that of the eoliths of Europe." 

THE " BROKEN-STONE " INDUSTRY 

In an article published on the occasion of the meeting of the 
American International Scientific Congress in Buenos Aires, in July, 
1910, 2 Ameghino reasserts his beliefs as to the stone industry pre- 
viously described by him, and in addition reports still more primitive 
and ancient worked stones from Monte Hermoso. The principal parts 
of this last report are given below: 

"It is only a couple of months ago that, in announcing the primi- 
tive split-stone industry, characteristic of the Middle Pliocene of the 
Atlantic coast south of Mar del Plata, I said that this rudimentary 
industry should have been preceded by another, showing the part- 
ing of pebbles by knocking one against another, for the purpose of 
utilizing the pointed and sharp fragments resulting from the sep- 
aration. 

1 Ameghino, F., Geologia, paleogeografia, paleontologia, antropologia de la Republica Argentina. 
Estudio publicado en el Niimero Extraordinario de La Naeion (Buenos Aires), del 25 de Mayo de 1910. 
Separate, pp. 1-26. 

2 Ameghino, F. , La industria de la piedra quebrada en el mioceno superior de Monte Hermoso. Congrtiso 
Cientifieo Internacional Americano, Buenos Aires, 1910, pp. 1-5. 



hrdliCka] STONE INDUSTRIES OF THE ARGENTINE COAST 105 

"I have just succeeded in encountering this more ancient and more 
primitive industry which I will call The Broken-stone Industry (Indus- 
tria de la piedra queorada). 

"In 1889 I described and photographed a fragment of stone which 
I had found two years before at Monte Hermoso and recognized its 
primitive form, but without forming an exact notion as to the 
character of the industry of which it formed a part. 

"Toward the end of the last of May and during the first half of 
June, I visited the Atlantic coast of Mar del Plata and farther south, 
accompanying the North American delegates, Messrs. Hrdlicka and 
Bailey Willis, with the object of showing them the distinct deposits 
which yielded remains of fossil man or vestiges of his primitive 
industry. 

"On the 11th of June, in the afternoon, we visited Monte Hermoso, 
where with difficulty we were able to stay a couple of hours. 

"I found the barrancas of the locality modified into a form very 
distinct from that which I have known. 

"The deposits of sands and sandy ground which rest above the 
Hermosean and constitute the Puelchean stratum, formerly visible 
over a small space of only about 40 meters, now appear exposed 
along the barranca for several hundred meters and also to a greater 
extent vertically. 

"In the superior part of this formation of stratified sands I dis- 
covered a considerable number of fragments of quartzite of the 
most varied and irregular forms, all or nearly all angular and with 
cutting edges, from among which, the time being so short, I was able 
to collect only a small series. 

"On examination these fragments proved to be those of water- 
worn pebbles of quartzite, derived from the nearby Sierra de la 
Ventana, which were broken by knocking strongly one against the 
other or with one on top of the other, without any determined 
direction. This is the most primitive stone industry of which I have 
any knowledge, and I can not imagine anything more simple. 

" The larger number of these fragments preserve still on one or two of 
their faces the natural surface of the rolled pebble, and on this surface 
are always observed scratches, bruises, abrasions, dints, etc., pro- 
duced by strong and repeated blows given with other stones. These 
signs of percussion are so fresh and so plain that they appear as of 
yesterday. 

"The borders of these broken stones terminate in slender and 
sharp edges, but sometimes present irregularities, denticulation, and 
other effects produced by use. 

"This industry is without doubt still more primitive than that of 
the eoliths, for the latter show retouching, either for sharpening the 
edges or to facilitate the accommodation of the instrument to the 



106 BUBEAU OF AMEBICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

hand, but in the broken quartzite from Monte Hermoso there is 
absolutely nothing similar. 

"On the other hand, these broken quartzites, however rustic they 
may appear, are surely the work of man or his precursor, for there 
can not be opposed to them the objections which are being made to 
the eoliths. In this case there can be no question of pressure by the 
rocks, of shocks produced by stones driven by water or due to falling 
stones, because, I repeat, they are loose in the sand, and are all 
separated one from the other. 

"It is my duty to say that I have seen Doctor Hrdlicka gather 
similar objects, but I do not know how he interprets them nor have 
I asked him. I declare myself, therefore, solely responsible for the 
significance which I give to the material in question." 

Criticisms ly F. F. Outes. — Shortly after the first announcement 
by Ameghino of his discovery of the new "split-stone industry," 1 
F. F. Outes published an article 2 in which he announced numerous 
finds of similar specimens in the same and also in other localities 
along the coast. He reported in at least one instance the association 
of such stone objects as are described by Professor Ameghino, with 
implements, rejects, etc., of quartzite, and he opposed both the 
geologic antiquity which has been attributed to the worked stones as 
well as the supposed great primitiveness of the workmanship. The 
principal features of the communication are cited below. 

Visiting the localities of the highly interesting new stone industry, 
says Outes: "I was easily able to gather 187 different specimens 
belonging to that industry, not only in the locality indicated to me 
with notable exactness by the distinguished geologist and traveler, 
Don Carlos Ameghino, but in four others similarly situated along the 
coast. 

"The barranca which constitutes the left boundary of the mouth 
of the Arroyo Corrientes is formed in the larger part of Pampean 
loess and of eolic deposit of the present era, on both of which denu- 
dation has acted extensively. 

"On the surface, distributed irregularly, isolated, or in small 
gullies, but never covered by either earth or sand, I have found 91 
objects belonging to the primitive industry referred to by Professor 
Ameghino. 

"I gathered 56 other pieces at Punta Porvenir, a little spur of 
quartzite rounded by the beach and nearly submerged when the waters 
are very high. Over a large part of this point, in its folds, is found a 
veneer of eolic deposit, identical in composition with that of the 
mouth of the Arroyo Corrientes and equally as much denuded. 

1 The terms "split" and "broken" as applied to these industries should not be confused. 

2 Outes F. F., Sobre una facies local de los instrumentos neoliticos Bonaerenses; in Revista del Museo de 
La Plata, xvi, Buenos Aires, 1909, pp. 319-339. 



hedliCka] STONE INDUSTRIES OF THE ARGENTINE COAST 107 

Furthermore, I have observed that in the upper level the Pampean 
surface corresponds, even more than at Arroyo Corrientes, to the 
type of detritic accumulation, for among its component elements 
are fine sand, triturated fragments of shells, and rolled pieces of loess 
of dark-gray color. Surrounded by precisely these materials was 
found the carapace [ x ] of Sclerocalyptus pseudornatus Ameghino. 2 

"All the specimens attributable to the supposed new industry 
were found, as at Arroyo Corrientes, distributed superficially. 

"The third locality in the department of Pueyrredon is situated 
at the distance of approximately a kilometer from the left bank of 
the Arroyo Chapadmalal. On the sand which covers the surface of 
the elevated platform, formed by oceanic erosion, which constitutes 
there the Bonaerean Atlantic coast, or distributed superficially over 
smaller areas where the vegetal soil is wanting and the sand is being 
reduced (in place of which there appears a calcareous deposit, called 
tosca, which covers as it seems a large part of the region), I obtained 
29 very characteristic examples of the worked stones. In this case 
the special circumstances of the find are of great importance. The 
objects referred to were not isolated, as in the two previously men- 
tioned localities, but associated and moreover mixed with a multi- 
tude of examples of flakes, knives, scrapers, etc., made of quartzite, 
or flint, and belonging to the well-known lithic industry, which is so 
little primitive in its characteristics that it occurs with considerable 
frequency in nearly all the Bonaerean culture-sites, even in those on 
the very surface of the land, as well as in those enveloped by the 
vegetal soil, especially along the borders of streams -und on lake 
shores. 3 

"Finally, there are two other localities where these specimens 
occur in the department of General Alvarado, both on the right 
bank of the Arroyos Brusquitas and Durazno, respectively. 

"In the former of these localities I found four isolated specimens 
on the sand which covered the surface of a small torrential gully or 

P The Punta Porvenir specimen mentioned above by Ameghino.] 

2 "The small excavation made [by Ameghino] in extracting the carapace of this Sclerocalyptus pseudor- 
natus was still visible when I made my last visit to the locality in March of the present year and I was 
able to obtain samples of the soil which inclosed numerous isolated remaining plates from the carapace." 

3 "Notwithstanding the bad weather and the misty and persistent rain, which formed an obstacle to my 
stay, I was able to gather on the great culture-site of which I speak, about 822 diverse objects: Flakes, 
knives, scrapers, and arrow points; but I did not find any fragment of pottery. Nevertheless, Don 
Carlos Ameghino told me that in other paraderos also near to the mouth of the Arroyo Chapadmalal, frag- 
ments of plain earthen vessels are sometimes found. 

"The specimens which I gathered, nearly all worked on only one surface, belong, as I said above, to one 
of the most diffused neolithic industries in the Province of Buenos Aires and of which Dr. Florentino 
Ameghino made known many types and varieties (if a multitude of unstable forms can so be termed) in 
one of the most classical of his works (La antigiiedad del hombre en El Plata, I, 213-267, Paris-Buenos Aires, 
1SS0-1881). There is also an identity between the examples which form my large series and those that were 
described many years ago by Dr. Francisco P. Moreno (Noticias sobre antigiiedas de los Indios del tiempo 
anterior a la conquista, etc., in Boletin de la Academia National de Ciencias de Cdrdoba, I, Buenos 
Aires, 1874, pp. 130-149); and they are also identical with some mentioned by myself in a memoir published 
in 1897 (F. F. Outes, Los Querandles, breve contribution al estudio de la etnografia argentina, 87-91 figuras 
1-4, Buenos Aires, 1897)." 



108 BUEEATT OF AMERICAN" ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

depression, that exists in the not very high barranca forming the 
coast, about 200 meters from the mouth of the Arroyo. 

"From the other locality I obtained seven examples, which were 
also distributed superficially over the sand that covers in great 
quantities the right bank of the Arroyo at its mouth. With these 
pieces I found an interesting scraper of rude form of the type called 
"duckbill" by English archeologists, and further, two broken arrow 
points belonging to the same industry to which I referred in previous 
paragraphs. 

"I believe that the objects described in this note [the chipped 
pebbles] belonged without doubt to the primitive stock of tools of 
the indigenous native of the Bonaerean time. The products in no 
way can be attributed to either natural or accidental causes . . . 
neither are the traces of workmanship, use, or retouching on these 
stones comparable with the apparent traces of such nature observed 
on the pseudo-eoliths; . . . nor, finally, can the specimens be 
attributed to the activities of those who actually live in these regions. 

"I entertain no doubts on the subject of the antiquity of the 
material described and photographed in this note: It must be 
referred without exception to the neolithic period of these regions of 
South America. [*] 

"All the specimens on the left bank of the Arroyo Corrientes were 
encountered superficially, and the same was true at Punta Porvenir. 2 
In both localities I have removed the underlying deposits and have 
not found similar remains. On the other hand, at Chapadmalal 
and at the "Arroyos Brusquitas and Durazno, all the objects came 
not only from the surface of the ground, but were also found mixed 
with implements and weapons of the pre-Spanish natives, represent- 
ing the industry reported hitherto from nearly all the Bonaerean 
culture-sites covered by the vegetal earth, or exposed on the surface. 

"The numerous objects of this last-named industry, gathered by 
me at Chapadmalal and in other localities of the department of 
Alvarado, present without exception the same luster and the same 
blunting of the edges as those described specially in this note — 
peculiarities which do not corroborate in any manner whatever a 
great antiquity, but are well explained by the polishing action of the 
sand carried by the waters or driven by the wind . . . 

[ l In relation to Professor Ameghino's statements regarding the paleoethnologic importance of Punta 
Porvenir, Outes says: "It suffices to know that at Punta Porvenir the erosive agents have acted 
extensively; that the waters have moved the ground at all levels, and the wind has accumulated the 
detritic deposit of which I have spoken in the text. Hence it is probable, and a repeated examination 
of the terrane confirms my belief, that the fossils and diverse objects recovered from the 'looser upper sand' 
were not in an original deposit and that the suggestive picture of the primitive shelter described by Pro- 
fessor Ameghino . . . can be explained, without doing violence to the facts, by diverse accidental 
circumstances."] 

2 " However, supposing even that some of the specimens have been encountered buried in the ground, 
it would still be requisite to proceed with reserve, because of the very special character of all the localities, 
exposed to erosive agencies, which remove, transpose, and accumulate continually the earthy or sandy 
materials." 



hhdmCka] STGNE INDUSTRIES OF THE ARGENTINE COAST 109 

"The exhaustive examination which I made of the ground and 
of the objects associated in certain cases with the worked pebbles 
induces me to believe that these utilized or worked pebbles, gathered 
in the Bonaerean Atlantic littoral, constitute only a local phase of a 
certain portion of the tools of some of the neolithic native groups. 
Moreover, I incline to consider them contemporary with the rude 
implements and weapons of quartzite, shaped nearly always on only 
one surface, which appear to characterize the larger part of the more 
primitive neolithic stations, permanent or temporary. In my excur- 
sions I have found them not only in the departments of Pueyrredon 
and General Alvarado, but also on the coast of Necochea 1 and in 
the proximity of Puerto Belgrano." 2 

Outes has taken no notice of the anvil-stones. 

Response to Outes's statements, by Ameghino. — To Outes's notes, 
cited above, Ameghino in his succeeding publication 3 answered as 
follows : 

"A young archeologist, well known for his malevolence as well as 
for his obstinacy in defending the most impossible and paradoxical 
things, published about this industry a memoir filled with all sorts of 
inexactitudes. This young man had gone every year to Mar del 
Plata, had walked over the same localities and trodden upon the 
stones, without comprehending their significance. As soon, how- 
ever, as my memoir appeared and with information obtained sur- 
reptitiously from those who accompanied me on my excursions, he 
went to Mar del Plata, gathered in the places that were indicated 
to him a certain number of specimens and at once thereon, without 
any serious examination of the question, declared that the case 
was that of neolithic implements (!), representing a local phase. 

"Not possessing any geologic criterion, he mistook the Inter- 
Ensenadean beds veneering the ancient cliff for a detritic deposit of 
the present epoch; the Inter-Ensenadean marine strata, which 
underlie all the Superior Pampean and contain shells of extinct spe- 
cies, he considered recent accumulations on the way toward lapidi- 
fication, whereas, on the contrary, they constitute an ancient forma- 
tion on the way to destruction. The mammalian debris that are 
found in the eolo-marine deposit he regarded as having been brought 
out from the cliff against which this deposit is lying; but, as among 

1 "The specimens obtained in this locality were found at Punta Negra, on the surface of the continental 
flat, and also in another spot situated approximately 500 m. from the mouth of the Rio Quequen, partly 
covered by the movable sands of the dunes which there exist. In both cases, the worked pebbles were 
mixed with implements and weapons of the well-known recent industry to which I have referred in different 
parts of this memoir." 

2 "I gathered many examples over the surface at the foot of the Colina Doble, distant a few hundred 
meters from the military post; and I also found some isolated pieces in a salitral which exists on the road 
that leads from the last-named locality to Bahia Blanca." 

3 TJne nouvelle industrie lithique. L'lndustrie de la pierre fendue dans le Tertiare de la region 
littorale au sud de Mar del Plata, par Florentino Ameghino; in Amies del Museo National de Buenos Aires, 
xx (ser. Ui, t. xin), 1911, pp. 189-192. 



110 BUKEATJ OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

this debris there are whole or nearly whole carapaces of Glypto- 
dontidse and articulated skeletons, the affirmation of this author 
resolves itself into one of those errors for which there is no excuse. 
Besides this, in these localities, the beds of the ancient cliff are com- 
pletely sterile. And, moreover, this debris of mammals from the 
eolo-marine deposits is formed by species characteristic of the Ense- 
nadean, without any vestige of a recent species. His complete igno- 
rance of all these geologic and paleontologic questions is thus dis- 
played in a very decided manner. Briefly, his malevolence, which 
perforce leads him to criticize everything, has resulted in filling his 
memoir on this ancient industry with errors so gross that they do 
not serve to honor him. To dwell more in detail on these errors, 
which one would say are the product of an infantile brain, would be 
a waste of time. 

' ' There is, however, one point which prompts the following brief 
note on my part: 

' ' The author in question criticises severely my statement that this 
industry is distinct from those existing to this day, and that to a 
certain degree it is more primitive than that of the eoliths. To 
demonstrate that what I have said is inexact, he enters into long 
considerations, with a large number of quotations which have no 
relation to the subject. Finally, he describes and photographs 
several of the implements to show their relation with others found in 
different regions, which he believes to be similar to those of Mar del 
Plata. 

"According to these descriptions and the photographs with which 
they are accompanied, I perceive that the author has not appreciated 
the true character of this industry nor the technique of the fabrica- 
tion, which is precisely that which distinguishes it from all other 
stone industries heretofore known, and as I have not said in what the 
novelty of this industry consisted, the result is that he has repeated 
the immortal combat of Don Quixote against the windmills." 

So much for the published data relating to the "ancient stone 
industries" of the Argentine coast. The following pages contain 
the observations and views of the present writers on this highly 
interesting subject. In their work they have not been influenced 
materially by the publications cited, reliance being placed especially 
on personal observations in the field and on their own collections 
brought to Washington. 



hhdliCka] STONE INDUSTRIES OF THE ARGENTINE COAST 111 

Field Observations 
worked stones of reputed geologic antiquity 

The exploration, the results of which will be given in the following 
pages, was undertaken with eager expectations. Ameghino's publi- 
cations on the strange ancient "split-stone" industry and on other 
finds from this very little known coast region, his personal informa- 
tion and enthusiasm on the subject, and the unquestionably peculiar 
characteristics of the archeologic specimens seen in his collection, 
impressed the writer considerably. It was soon recognized that all 
that was written or said on the subject could not be accepted, but 
the bulk of the data seemed of such importance that the visit to 
the regions which yielded the highly interesting specimens, especially 
in company with a geologist of experience, and with the promised 
presence of Professor Ameghino himself, was entered on with keen 
anticipations. 

So far as collecting evidence and numerous specimens are concerned, 
the work was fortunate from the start; and, as time progressed, fact 
after fact appeared which threw light on the problems investigated 
different from and much more simple than that in which they were 
seen before. This was by no means changed later by the presence of 
Srs. Florentino and Carlos Ameghino, and the final conclusions reached 
by the Smithsonian expedition are completely at variance with the 
opinions held by these gentlemen. 

The coast of Argentina, especially that of the Province of Buenos 
Aires, presents certain characteristic physical features found only 
rarely in other localities. 

It is readily seen that the present coast line is very recent, that 
it is continually being changed by the action of the sea, and that a 
thousand years ago (not to speak of any greater length of time) it 
must have been much farther out, beyond the shallows that remain. 
As to the location of the coast line in the Pleistocene, or even earlier, 
there is no indication. 

The flat or undulating surface of the interior, covered with sward, 
extends in some parts close to the sea, there ending abruptly in a 
more or less vertical wall or barranca. These bluffs, which range in 
height from 2 or 3 to more than 70 feet, are the result of the com- 
bined action of the sea wash and the crumbling down of masses of 
earth from the land facing the ocean. 

At other points, parts of the surface of the land near the sea have 
been deprived by wind and water of the black vegetal soil and present 
smaller or larger barren, grayish stretches, in some instances sloping 
toward the sea, covered in varying degrees with sand, debris of 
tosca, 1 stones, triturated shells, etc. The denudation by the elements 

i Calcareous concretionary formation occurring at various depths In the loess; caliche. 



112 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

has often been so great that the older geologic sediments are exposed, 
and bones of extinct species of animals lying in these sediments 
become more or less visible or even loose; in other instances, how- 
ever, the erosion has been relatively slight, amounting to but a few 
inches below recent surface. 

A third and most characteristic feature of the coast consists of 
the sand dunes, or medanos, which line the shore for great dis- 
tances. They form a range of sand hills which, as the sea advances 
steadily and, in general, with considerable rapidity at the expense 
of the land, must be quite recent in their present location. This 
line of dunes varies from less than a mile to several miles in breadth 
and continues, with a few interruptions, from a short distance 
south of Mar del Plata to Bahia Blanca. The prevailing height of 
the individual dunes ranges from about 30 to 80 feet, but occasion- 
ally they are lower or higher. They are of various shapes, the coni- 
cal and " hog-back" types predominating, differ considerably in 
bulk, and extend in many cases close to the beach. In some parts, 
as at Monte Hermoso, the sea front presents a barranca face sur- 
mounted by the medanos. 

The sand dunes are of two principal varieties and the difference 
between them is of consequence archeologically. The first class, 
preponderant north of Monte Hermoso, are the barren, moving 
dunes, while the second consist of such sand hills as have become 
covered and more or less fixed by vegetation. It is the region of 
the barren medanos that is especially interesting anthropologically. 
In the fixed dunes whatever implements and other remains of aborig- 
inal population there may be, lie buried within or under the sand and 
with rare exceptions escape observation. Among the barren and 
moving dunes, on the other hand, the force of the winds results in 
uncovering the implements and other remains, and these remain for a 
longer or shorter time exposed to view, so that they may be easily 
collected. 

The barren dunes are shifted by the sand being blown from the 
slope exposed to the wind and falling down the opposite slope. On 
the exposed side the wind tends to remove all the sand down to the 
more resistant surface of the ground. If there are any stones, imple- 
ments, or heavier human or animal remains anywhere in the sand or 
on the ground underneath, such objects sink down to, or remain in 
place on, the exposed harder surface, to be reburied, reexposed, and 
shifted from time to time as the wind currents assume different 
directions. 

All the dunes connect at the base and inclose more or less extensive 
hollows. Some of these hollows are relatively shallow, circum- 
scribed, and sandy. Other depressions are, however, much larger 



hedliCka] STONE INDUSTRIES OF THE ARGENTINE COAST 113 

and deeper and often more irregular in form. In many instances 
these larger depressions connect at one extremity with the seashore, 
and their bottom in parts, or even in a large stretch reach to, or 
even somewhat into, the ground beneath the sand. The basal areas 
in the various depressions here referred to are sometimes called playas, 
a convenient term for the purpose, though more strictly applied to the 
beach only. 

There are two distinct varieties of the dune-range playas, which 
may be distinguished by the color as the black and the gray. Most 
of the black are shallower than the gray, though the difference may 
be slight. They present level patches of closely packed fine sand 
and earth colored nearly black by manganese and possibly other 
mineral ingredients; the surface is often rich in archeologic specimens. 
These black playas are generally situated more inland, and owe their 
principal characteristics of form and color to water action. They 
represent the denser ground of the lowest parts of the dunes, or 
the top of the underlying soil, with additional material brought and 
deposited during rains. In heavier rains water in small quantities 
evidently accumulates over the surface of these patches, particularly 
of those that offer no easy outlet, and the mineral particles, as well 
as fine sand from the surrounding dunes, settle and form the black 
even surface. The amount of material thus deposited is generally 
small; yet it was found sufficient nearly to bury, in one instance, the 
skull of a viscacha, and in other cases to cover, in a degree, several 
stone flakes and implements. Generally, however, the stone objects 
and bones lie free upon the surface. 

The second class of playas consists of the larger, sometimes exten- 
sive, irregular, denuded surfaces, similar to eroded areas occurring 
independently of sand dunes, as mentioned in the first part of this 
section, and containing debris of tosca, stones, shells, bones, etc., and 
also, in some localities, numerous pieces of scoria. In some places 
such large denuded patches show remnants, a few inches to more 
than 2 feet in height, of a former, comparatively recent surface, the 
rest of which has been removed by the action of the elements. In 
some instances the higher of such remnants are capped with darker 
earth, which represents, in all probability, the vegetal layer that has 
become covered by the sands. . The gray floor itself belongs to older 
sediments and shows traces, in some localities rare, in others rather 
common, of skeletal remains of fossil animals, particularly the glypto- 
don and the scelidotherium. Most of these gray open playas are 
poor in specimens pertaining to man, although there may be sheltered 
nooks farther inland in which more of such objects will be brought to 
light in the future. 

21535°— Bull. 52—12 8 



114 BUEEAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

The archeologic remains found associated with the several above- 
mentioned features of the coast are, first, numerous stones with a 
few objects of other materials, showing man's handiwork; and, sec- 
ond, skeletal remains of man himself . 

The worked stones consist of utensils, such as mealing- or grinding- 
stones, mostly in fragments; hammer-stones; peculiar anvil-stones 
(stones which show the effects of having served as supports on which 
other hard objects, probably stones, were worked) ; highly interesting 
implement-like chipped pebbles, of the types described by Ameghino 
and Outes, derived from hard pebbles of fluvial origin, which are 
found in large numbers along the shore in these localities; arrow 
points, scrapers, and nuclei of yellowish-white quartzite, brought to 
these regions from the inland hills; and a great many flakes and other 
rejects of manufacture. The smaller objects, in general, fall into 
two main classes distinguished as "white" and "black," the former 
proceeding from fragments of massive whitish quartzite, the latter 
from pebbles of jasper, quartzite, etc., ranging from black to various 
tints of red, brown, and yellow. (Pis. 9-12.) 

These two classes of specimens — the light and the dark — were 
always found in association. On the playas, both black and gray, the 
worked stones and flakes, wherever they occurred, were invariably 
commingled. No single spot was found, and many were examined, 
where either the "white" or the "black" chipped stones existed 
alone. In the district of Mar del Plata the heavier objects, as mortars, 
pestles, mullers, and the hammer- and anvil-stones, are made from 
the coarse local quartzite, ledges of which are exposed in a number 
of places along the shore. In the more southern parts, quartzite is 
wanting and one finds occasionally hammers and anvil- stones made 
from stout pieces of tosca, utilized for want of better material. 
Now and then a smaller stone showing man's handiwork, of the 
Mar del Plata quartzite, will be found as far south as Necochea. The 
material of such specimens has undoubtedly been derived from the 
more northern locality. 

The flaked stones and chips (particularly the black ones) are 
generally strewn over the surface of the playas, as they would occur 
on sites utilized by the natives for their shops. The depressions 
among the medanos, particularly the more sheltered and protected 
ones farther inland, were especially adapted for such a purpose. It 
is inferred that most of the implements made in these shops were 
carried away to be utilized inland, but a few, with the stones from 
which flakes were secured and with the refuse of the shaping work, 
remained on the ground. Some of the mealing stones and anvil- 
stones were found apparently in the exact places where they were 
last used, and often the flakage was more plentiful in the imme- 
diate vicinity of the latter than elsewhere. Of course, as the depres- 



hedliCka] STONE INDUSTRIES OF THE ARGENTINE COAST 115 

sions shifted, being filled on one side and extended on the other by 
the changing sands, the native implement-maker moved his work 
place with them, and it is readily seen that in the course of time 
much of the surface of the ground underneath the sands would be 
supplied in this way with chips, nuclei, and rejectage, and these in 
turn would continue to be reexposed as new areas were uncovered by 
the winds. 

There is nothing to indicate that either the " black" or the "white" 
flaked stones were brought in the worked state, accidentally or 
otherwise, to the sites where found. The proximity of the principal 
materials used — the quartzite in the north, the tosca in the south, 
and the dark pebbles on the adjacent beach — makes it practically 
certain that all of these materials were worked in the protected 
depressions among the sand dunes on the very spots where the 
numerous relics are now found. Had the few finished implements 
only been encountered on one or more of these playa floors, their 
presence might be regarded as due to accidental loss by hunters or 
other rovers of the pampas, but the hundreds of the flaked pebbles, 
the thousands of chips, and quantities of other forms of rejectage, 
strewn over practically all of the black and some portions of the 
gray playas, could not have been brought in and left by wayfarers 
from a distance. 

The white quartzite, however, was, without question, brought in 
convenient masses from the low Sierra in the more western part of 
the province, and worked up at leisure among the medanos. A 
large nucleus of this stone was found by the writer near the Arroyo 
Corrientes, south of Mar del Plata, and some of smaller size were 
seen in other localities. It is plain that these are nuclei from which 
large pieces have been flaked, and thus is furnished clear proof of the 
importation and local utilization of this material. (Fig. 27.) 

Of course, it is not assumed that all of both the " black" and the 
"white" stones showing human manipulation have been deposited at 
the precise level and in the identical spots at which they are found 
to-day. Some may have sunk from higher levels, as the lighter soil 
ingredients were removed by the wind and perhaps also by water, 
and some of the lighter flakes may have been moved directly by these 
agencies. 

In rare instances only was a worked stone found imbedded in the 
surface of a playa. A careful search directed particularly to this 
phase of the subject resulted in the discovery of only five chipped 
pieces, three "black" and two "white," partly buried. All of these 
were observed in the black playas, in one of which there was also 
partly interred (nothing exposed except the teeth) the skull of a 
modern viscacha. Yet it is readily conceivable that specimens may 



116 



BUEEAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 



[bull. 52 



be even entirely covered, and that not merely in the surface of the 
black, but also in that of the gray, playas, for cattle, horses, ostriches 
(rheas) and other animals occasionally visit these depressions, and, 
especially after rains, may press small stones into the ground ; or rain 
water and the wind may contribute, by means of the material which 
they carry, toward the same end. On the playas south of Punta 



£cu?u7ia. cLe Zos Padres 



PROVINCIA DE 
BUENOS AIRES 



Laguruz Corrientes 




Fig. 2. Map of the Argentine coast from Mar del Plata to the Barrancas de los Lobos. 

Mogote, Mr. Willis and the writer observed several worked stones, 
as well as some recent bones, banked on the windward side with 
fine wind-blown material of the same color and apparently of the 
same geologic nature as the deposits underneath. After a rain such 
accumulations might easily harden and thus appear as constituent 
parts of the older ground on which they are formed. 



BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 



BULLETIN 52 PLATE 10 






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ANVIL-STONES 

a, On grassy surface (apparently in situ) at Campo Peralta, south of Mar del Plata. 

b, On denuded surface, near the sea, in vicinity of Arroyo Corrientes. Here is seen also refuse of 
pebble-stone flaking, with numerous unused pebbles, bones of seals, shells, and other objects. 

c, A small collection from an area of less than an acre on an elevation just north of Arroyo Corrientes. 



hrdliCka] STOKE INDUSTRIES OP THE ARGENTINE COAST 117 

It is also highly probable that in exceptional instances a smaller 
chip or implement, moved by running water, wind, or gravity, is 
lodged in a hole or a depression where it eventually becomes covered 
by alluvial or eolic materials. Examples illustrating this were 
observed on the slopes of the Campo Peralta and will probably be 
reported from time to time from other localities. Similar agencies 
may explain the presence, mentioned by Professor Ameghino, of 
two black stones buried near the carapace of a glyptodon, on the 
small sloping denuded Punta Porvenir, which is about a mile 
distant from the Campo Peralta. (See map, fig. 2.) 

In at least two localities worked stones were found on or in the 
black vegetal surface soil outside of the play as. One of these was 
the Campo Peralta, just south of Mar del Plata, and the other the 
north bank of the Rio Quequen, near the mouth of the stream, in the 
neighborhood of Necochea. 

On the Campo Peralta the writer found several larger anvil-stones 
in the grass-covered, undenuded and hitherto undisturbed part of 
the surface. The stones lay more or less buried in the vegetal soil 
and, barring one or two exceptions, with the pitted surface upward. 
Some were near and some distant from the denuded part of the play a, 
on which were found numerous worked stones of all varieties. The 
difference in level between the sward-covered and more inland part 
of the playa and the uppermost portions of its denuded surface, rich 
in flaked stones, chips, etc., was only slight, not more apparently 
than a few inches. 

Some of the stones observed in situ on the grass-covered black soil 
were photographed before removal (see pi. 10). When they were 
lifted, it was seen that the lighter ones were undergrown with grass 
roots and blanched grass, which made it appear at first sight as if the 
stones had been placed there recently; but on examination of other, 
unworked stones on the same surface, and also elsewhere, it was 
found that grass invariably forms such roots and etiolated stems 
under stones that are not very heavy or very large or deeply buried. 
On being shown these anvil-stones in the grass, Professor Ameghino 
surmised that they had been carried there by boys, ranch hands, or 
excursionists ; but on careful consideration of the case this hypothe- 
sis, as applied to at least the majority of the specimens, seemed quite 
improbable. The locality is as yet without settlers. A single family 
lives in a depression half a mile away, but the children of this family 
knew nothing of the stones, which are not of a nature to attract ordi- 
nary curiosity. The place is distant from Mar del Plata and is not 
near the beach or other places where excursionists are likely to roam. 
Were it visited at all, it is reasonable to assume that the stone imple- 
ments on the denuded part of the flat would have been taken or 
scattered. Furthermore, some of the anvil-stones were too heavy 



118 BUEEAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

to be carried away easily by boys, and ranch hands would not be 
likely to take them from the barrens and scatter them over the pas- 
ture. It is much more probable that at least some of these stones 
remain to-day on the identical spots where they were left by tiie 
natives who used them. 

An additional fact which may be mentioned in this connection 
is the find on the more inland portion of the denuded part of the 
Campo Peralta of two accumulations or arrangements of larger 
unworked stones, which showed man's agency. One of these was in 
the shape of a right angle and the other formed a small mound. The 
latter in appearance suggested a grave-covering, but on excavation 
no confirmation of this theory was discovered. A large and well- 
made metate and other stone utensils were placed there, in all 
probability by the original inhabitants, or those who worked the 
"black" as well as the " white" stones found in the vicinity. These 
artificial stone piles served to indicate even better than did the gen- 
eral level of the ground about them the small amount of denudation 
that has taken place on the spot since their construction. (PL 11.) 

The second locality where worked stones were actually found by 
the writer in the black surface soil, was the top of the high north bank 
of the Rio Quequen, near Necochea. This locality yielded only small 
specimens, but a large quartz implement that might have been used 
as a hand ax was found deep in the ground in digging a well a few rods 
away. This specimen is in Professor Ameghino's hands. A very 
large quartzite object of the same type, but slightly cruder, was 
gathered by the writer from one of the black playas about 20 miles 
to the northward. Articles of stone were by no means rare in the 
surface soil in the locality under consideration, and were said by the 
writer's guide, the gardener employed by Professor Ameghino to col- 
lect antiquities in that neighborhood, to have been even more 
common formerly. Many have been exposed by wagons passing 
over and breaking the ground. In this locality there is no denuded 
playa or exposed old surface; yet the specimens here collected are 
identical in their characteristics with those from the playas among the 
sand dunes. 

A special variety of flaked stones was discovered at Monte Hermoso. 
The writer found that the Monte Hermosean formation exposed in the 
now famous barranca was covered by more recent material. On 
the old formation rests a layer of volcanic ash, then some stratified 
sand, while the highest part is formed of a stratum of gravelly sand, 
continuous with the base of the sand dune situated above and a little 
farther inland from the edge of the barranca. The last-named sur- 
face material is unstratified and somewhat packed, but in no way con- 
solidated, and bears every evidence of being very recent. It crumbles 
over the clearly marked, ancient Monte Hermosean deposit, and in 





> u 



_ 





hrdliCka] STONE INDUSTRIES OP THE ARGENTINE COAST 119 

falling down becomes here and there lodged on the shelves or in the 
depressions of the old formation. In common with Professor Ame- 
ghino the writer found in such crumbled-down material some large 
irregular and entirely fresh-looking fragments or chips of quartzite, 
which indicate plainly the work of man. One of the heavier frag- 
ments had been employed as a hammer, portions of the periphery 
being distinctly worn by use. In addition, he found on one of the 
upper ledges a well-finished scraper of jasper. Subsequently he ex- 
tracted a number of quartzite chips or fragments from the more 
gravelly part of the uppermost deposit itself, within 18 inches of the 
surface. No " black" or "white" material and no anvil-stones were 
seen in the neighborhood, but the visit was too short to determine 
their absence. It is probable, however, that such specimens are 
wanting entirely or are very rare, since in this part of the coast there 
is marked absence of the hard pebbles which were utilized so freely 
farther north and to some extent also farther south, near Bahia 
Blanca, by the Argentine natives. 

From Monte Hermoso the writer proceeded to the southern limits 
of the Province of Buenos Aires and to northern Patagonia. Archeo- 
logic finds here also were quite numerous, and some discoveries were 
made which are of special importance in their bearing on the antiquity 
of the peculiar "black" stone "implements" of the more northern 
part of the Argentine coast. 

These finds were made in and near the valley of the Rio Negro. 
In these regions, "black" pebbles comparable in size to those of the 
more northern parts of the coast are rare on the surface but not 
totally absent, and were utilized by the natives. In general, the 
stone work of this territory differs from that farther north in the pro- 
fusion of chipped blades, arrow points, spear points, and drills. 
There are also stone mortars, pestles and mullers, and a peculiar 
type of ax. Yet, with all this, one finds occasionally a "black" 
flaked stone exactly resembling those of the neighborhood of Mar del 
Plata, Miramar, or Necochea. Several such specimens were col- 
lected at San Xavier (a locality well inland), in the neighborhood of 
Viedma (see fig. 39), and among the coast sand dunes near San Bias. 
A particularly important find, however, was that of two anvil-stones, 
absolutely identical in character with those of the coast of the Prov- 
ince of Buenos Aires, on the surface of the alluvium in the confines of 
a former settlement of the Rio Negro Valley natives, about 4 miles 
south of Viedma. Here all antiquity is out of the question, for the 
alluvial deposits of the Rio Negro, particularly those on the surface, 
are very recent. Furthermore, the neighborhood has yielded a col- 
lection of Indian skeletons and a large well-made stone mortar. 
Over the site were scattered numerous flakes and fragments of jasper 
of different colors, some of which at least were derived from pebbles. 



120 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

It thus appears that the utilization of suitable pebbles, occasionally 
in the same way as at more northern points on the coast, and also 
of anvil-stones, can not be regarded as characteristic of any very 
ancient culture. They must have been made and used by the Indians 
occupying some parts of the Argentine coast up to and probably even 
in historic times. 

A word remains to be said as to pottery. Potsherds are very rare 
along the coast from Mar del Plata to Bahia Blanca; nevertheless, 
a few specimens were found by the writer, these on the same black 
playas, among the sand dunes, with "white" and "black" chips, 
flakes, and implements. The fragments are all of rather thin cooking 
vessels, without glaze or ornament. Some potsherds of very much 
the same nature were found with worked "white" and "black" 
stones on the shore of the Laguna de los Padres, west of Mar del 
Plata. At San Bias and in the eastern part of the valley of the Rio 
Negro, pottery is more common, although comparatively rare; this 
was occasionally well decorated by incised and impressed figures. No 
pottery was found at the San Xavier settlement, which existed until 
historic times, nor at that south of Viedma. 

Besides the many stone specimens and the pieces of earthenware 
collected on the journey, three objects were found which deserve 
special mention. One, near the Laguna Malacara, was the piece of a 
shaft of the long bone of some animal, fashioned artificially on one 
side to a point, and having served very likely as a flaker; the second 
was a small turquoise bead, with central perforation, picked up by 
the writer with some of the "white" and "black" worked stones, on 
a playa southeast of Miramar; while the third is a large neatly fin- 
ished arrow point, made of a flake of one of the black pebbles, found 
by the writer on one of the playas between Punta Mogote and Arroyo 
Corrientes, south of Mar del Plata. 

The stone specimens, specially the "black ones," were found in 
numerous instances to present faint-to-marked signs of weathering. 
This feature was particularly noticeable in one limited region close 
to the seashore near the Arroyo del Moro, northeast of Necochea. This 
weathering is due in the main to sand blast and is a phenomenon of 
but secondary importance. Everything in these regions that is 
exposed to the wind, including recent bones of animals, fragments of 
glass bottles, pieces of driftwood, tosca, etc., shows before the lapse 
of many years the effects of weathering in greater or less degree. A 
fragment of a stout wine bottle, collected by the writer among the 
dunes, had the exposed surface ground to complete dullness, while 
that buried in the sand preserves all its old luster. 

No evidence was found that the natives ever actually dwelt, except 
temporarily, in the territory of the sand dunes. They have had 
settlements in not very distant localities, traces of such being appar- 



hkdliCka] STONE INDUSTRIES OF THE ARGENTINE COAST 121 

ent at the Campo Peralta, at the Arroyo Corrientes, near the Laguna 
Malacara (north of Necochea), and near the mouth of the Rio Que- 
quen, on the north side of the river, not far from Necochea. Farther 
south, especially in the neighborhood of the Rio Negro, settlements 
were located among the sand dunes, as at San Bias, but here the 
strip of sand dunes was narrow and inclosed several small fresh-water 
lakes. 

' Possessing their workshops among the sand dunes, with at least 
some of their settlements in the neighborhood, it is quite probable 
that the natives buried some of their dead in or among the dunes. 
This probability will be shown later to have a significant bearing on 
the question of the antiquity of some of the human remains obtained 
along the coast and claimed to be geologically ancient. Burials of 
precisely the same character have been made in numbers, both in the 
sand dunes and on the firmer ground among them, farther south, 
between the port of San Bias and Rio Negro. 

Conclusions 

Taking into consideration the extent of territory over which the 
various worked stones here dealt with are found; the relatively 
large numbers in which they occur, particularly in some localities; 
the relatively recent nature of the present sand-dune area, which is 
almost exclusively their home; and the additional facts, that they are 
as a rule on the surfaces of the playas, that they occur occasionally 
on or in the vegetal soil, that worked stones of corresponding types 
are found in some instances farther inland on recent alluvial deposits, 
and that many of the specimens are of fresh appearance — it appears 
that only one conclusion can be reached in regard to the age of these 
artifacts, namely, that they are not of great antiquity and certainly 
not of geologic antiquity. 

Thegeneraland intimate association of the" white" and the "black" 
worked stones, with other considerations, leads to the further conclu- 
sions that these two classes of relics are the products of one culture 
and one period; that the "black" stone or pebble industry was the 
result of an ample local supply of such material coupled with scarcity 
of other material; and that the peculiarities of this industry were due 
to the nature of the material, connected possibly with some special 
local requirements. 

Finally, as the "white" stone industry of the coast is identical with 
that of the Indians of the more inland parts of the same province, and 
as it is impossible to separate it from the "black" stone or pebble 
industry, the conclusion seems justifiable that they are both the work 
of the Indian. 

It seems very probable that the natives, the remains of whose 
workshops exist among the medanos, were well acquainted with the 



122 BtTREATJ OP AMERICAN" ETHNOLOGY [boll. 52 

"white" stone, or quartzite, industry before they began working the 
beach pebbles, which, or the flakes from which, were to serve as a 
substitute for the stone found farther inland. Finding, however, that 
they could not entirely replace the quartzite, they kept on bringing 
or importing a limited quantity of that stone and working it up among 
the dunes. 

Whether the Indians used the "black" flaked pebbles to any 
extent as implements is not as yet certain. If used, they were 
utilized, in all probability, only locally and not by any of the inland 
tribes. The explanation of tins appears simple. Inland the pebble 
material is absent, while the sources of the quartzite were frequently 
nearer. Furthermore, the pebbles were evidently of but secondary 
value as raw material, so that there was no incentive for carrying 
them to any distance, and they yielded nothing, so far as known, 
that would have been of special value for exportation. 

We have found, then, on the coast of the Province of Buenos Aires 
archeologic remains of but a single culture, with a local phase in 
working pebbles; a culture that can be referred to only one period, 
though tins may have been of some extent, and to only one people, 
namely, the Indian of the same province; and this culture can not 
possibly be of any great, especially of geologic, antiquity. 

The archeologic report by Professor Holmes (p. 125), on the speci- 
mens collected, throws further light on this subject. 

Notes on Playa and Campo Peralta 

By Bailey Willis 

Immediately south of Mar del Plata is a little bay, between Cabo 
Corrientes andPuntaPorvenir, the shore of which is known as the Playa 
Peralta (pis. 1, 21; also fig. 2). This shore is a slope rising at first 
slowly and then more sharply to the gently inclined plain, a part of 
which, east of the road that leads to the PuntaMogote lighthouse, is 
known as the Campo Peralta. The beach, though composed largely of 
sand, is strewn with pebbles of dense black or dark rock, and on the 
plain above are many worked stones of the same material. From this 
locality were collected a variety of artifacts, which are described by 
Doctor Hrdli6ka and Professor Holmes. The locality is of interest, 
because it was once the site of an industry in implements fashioned 
from the pebbles on the beach. Men lived on the gentle slope of the 
Campo Peralta. They collected stones from the beach. They car- 
ried them to their dwellings, possibly of a temporary nature, and 
worked them into shape — all within a distance of 200 or 300 meters. 
It is evident that the supply of stones attracted the workers and that 
they pitched their workshops where they could most conveniently 
reach the strand. The conditions are local. Northward and south- 



hrdliCka] STONE INDUSTRIES OP THE ARGENTINE COAST 123 

ward the coast is more precipitous and the beach is less accessible 
from the plain. 

This relation between the local slope to the beach and the industry 
which was carried on in the immediate vicinity leaves no doubt in the 
mind of the writer that the industry is even more recent than the 
beach. It has already been stated that the coast is very young. 
It is developing, changing rapidly. Its actual features are forming 
now and endure but a short time. The industry is younger still. 
Several instances were observed of a precise relation between anvil- 
stones, and the immediate surface, which could hardly endure a cen- 
tury on this slope under the activities of wind erosion that now exist. 
There were also other evidences of a relatively recent occupancy of 
the place (see pis. 9-11). The writer does not think a century has 
passed since the stones referred to were used. 

Notes on Punta Porvenir 

By Bailey Willis 

Punta Porvenir is a low point jutting into the Atlantic just south 
of Cabo Corrientes and forming part of the extreme eastern projec- 
tion of the coast of Buenos Aires. The interest which attaches to the 
locality rests in the discovery of worked and unworked stones, which 
the writer has not seen, by Doctor Ameghino and his brother Carlos, in 
association with the carapace of a glyptodon on the point near the sea. 
Doctor Ameghino and his brother both accompanied Doctor Hrdlicka 
and the writer to the place and pointed out the exact spot, where a 
hollow indicated the partly filled, not very large excavation. A piece 
of bone from the massive tail of a glyptodon lay on the surface near 
by. Ameghino stated that they had dug a hole to a depth of about a 
meter down through the superficial formation to the underlying 
Pampean terrane. The latter he styles "Ensenadean" and the former 
"Inter-Ensenadean." His view is that the superficial formation on 
the Inter-Ensenadean was deposited during a marine transgression 
which took place in the Ensenadean epoch. He places that epoch 
in the Pliocene, a reference which the writer regards as probably 
correct, and deduces thence the Pliocene age of the Inter-Ensena- 
dean and its contained fossils. The writer is obliged to dissent 
from this deduction since the Inter-Ensenadean is marked as very 
modern by its intimate relation to the recent coast line at every 
point where Doctor Ameghino identified it. This relation has been 
discussed in connection with the coastal formations, but the occur- 
rence on Punta Porvenir requires special description because of the 
delicate and temporary adjustment of conditions leading to its 
formation. 



124 BUREAU OF AMERICAN" ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

The Inter-Ensenadean of Punta Porvenir is a veneer of beach 
sand and loess spread over an irregular wind-eroded surface of the 
Ensenadean and slightly cemented by carbonates. It is thickest 
next the beach and thins to nothing at a distance of 100 to 110 meters 
from the beach. It does not extend beyond the reach of spray from 
storm waves breaking on the point. It lies on a gentle slope, 
from 4 to 6 meters above the sea, on top of the low bluff cut by 
the waves in the Ensenadean earth. The face of the bluff is con- 
cealed by sand blown from the adjacent beach, and this recent 
sand is continuous with and the same as the Inter-Ensenadean- 
Both sand and loess have accumulated, though from opposite 
directions, on the gentle slope to form the Inter-Ensenadean, the 
sand being blown from the beach, the loess from the bare surface 
of the Ensenadean that is exposed between the Inter-Ensenadean 
and the grass-grown plain still higher up. The sand gathers there 
because there is an eddy or lee on top of the bluff, when the 
wind blows from the sea. The wind sweeps up the steep face of 
the bluff, and being directed upward, does not blow directly across 
the gentle slope that tops the bluff. Sand is blown from the 
beach against the face of the bluff and accumulates there till a slope 
of equihbrium is reached, on which a wind can carry it up to the top. 
It then drops in the wind eddy on the slope. There is a certain sort- 
ing; black sand, being heavy, remains in larger proportion, whereas 
white sand, being lighter, is blown away in larger amount. Hence 
the black sand is more evident in the Inter-Ensenadean. Its 
presence is a characteristic by which Ameghino identified that for- 
mation in repeated instances on Punta Porvenir and elsewhere. 
It is a common constituent of the modern beach sands, which are 
partly derived from volcanic rocks of northern Patagonia and other 
districts to the south. 

The loess which gathers to form part of the Inter-Ensenadean is 
caught in hollows or is held by moisture. It is blown off of the dry 
surface of the Ensenadean by land winds and lodges on any moist 
surface. This process was observed at Miramar on the plain close to 
the sea. The uneven surface had dried unequally and dust, blown 
into hollows where moisture lingered, was moistened and held. The 
moisture had evaporated from deposits made in a similar manner 
a few days or weeks previously, and they were slightly cemented. 
They contained specks of black sand and were identified by Doctor 
Ameghino as Inter-Ensenadean. On Punta Porvenir the Inter- 
Ensenadean is of the same character — a cemented mixture of loess 
and sand deposited in the zone reached by spray from the sea. It is 
thicker and more firmly cemented than the similar accumulations now 
forming at Miramar and the mass of it is doubtless older. Lying on 



hedliCka] STONE INDUSTRIES OF THE ARGENTINE COAST 125 

one of the most exposed points on the coast, its seaward edge is liable 
to erosion by Atlantic waves, while its landward margin is extended 
inland as far as the sand and spray are blown together. Thus it is 
a transient formation that may last a few score years or so, but can 
not endure longer than the strand by which it is conditioned. 
! The glyptodon found in this Inter-Ensenadean is said to be char- 
acteristic of the underlying Ensenadean and to be of Pliocene age. 
If so, it is certainly older than the formation in which it was found, 
and may be regarded as weathered out and buried again. The 
writer questions, however, the extinction of this species in Pliocene 
time. The fact that it has been found in the eolian drift of the Arroyo 
Siasgo, which may be Pleistocene, but not older, and in this very 
recent coastal formation, suggests that the species may have ranged 
down into the Recent epoch. 

Stone Implements of the Argentine Littoral 1 
By W. H. Holmes 

The archeologic collections made by Doctor Hrdlicka, with the aid 
of Mr. Willis, during their researches in Argentina, comprise numerous 
articles of stone, a limited number of fragments of pottery, some 
worked beads of shell, and a single bead of stone (turquoise). All of 
these specimens were derived from surface sites distributed along the 
coast between Mar del Plata on the northeast and the Rio Negro on 
the southwest, a distance of nearly 400 miles. 

In previous sections Doctor Hrdlicka and Mr. Willis have presented 
all necessary details with respect to distribution and manner of occur- 
rence of the various classes of stone implements, and it remains for 
the writer to describe and illustrate the implements themselves and 
draw from their study such conclusions with regard to origin, manu- 
facture, use, ethnologic significance, and chronology as may be sug- 
gested. 

There are about 1,500 specimens in the collection, which in their 
general aspect suggest a primitive culture comparable with that of the 
tribes in possession of the region in the recent past, a culture correspond- 
ing somewhat closely in grade with that of the numerous tribes of the 
middle Atlantic coast of North America on the arrival of the English. 

The implements, under which head are embraced all artificial 
objects that bear evidence of design, include the following varieties: 
Mortars, pestles, mullers, grooved hammers, discoidal hammers, 
pitted hammers, anvil-stones, bolas-stones, projectile points, knives, 
scrapers, axes, drills, and unspecialized blades. Associated with 

1 No attempt is made in these notes to consider or weigh the published data relating to the stone imple- 
ments of Argentina. The collections at hand are classified and briefly described, and such conclusions are 
drawn as seem warranted by their character and manner of occurrence. 



126 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

these, on the sites, were fragments, chips, 1 broken and imperfectly 
shaped forms, nuclei, and other refuse of manufacture, selections from 
which are included in the collections. 

It is a noteworthy fact that, with the exception of a single turquoise 
bead from Miramar and a few shell beads from the Rio Negro, there 
are no ornaments ; neither are there any articles that could safely be 
attributed to fiducial or ceremonial use. This would seem to indicate 
a people or peoples of simple manners and customs, little given to 
religious practices and poor in the arts that grow out of religious 
symbolism. It is probable, however, that the coastal districts were 
sparsely occupied, except by roving bands which hunted deer, ostrich, 
etc., on the land, and the seal along the shore, and gathered supplies 
of water-worn stones found along the beach, for the manufacture of 
implements. 

It is convenient for purposes of description to arrange the objects 
in two geographic groups, those to the north obtained between Mar 
del Plata and Bahia Blanca, the principal localities being Mar del 
Plata, Miramar, Monte Hermoso, Arroyo del Moro, and Necochea, 
and those to the south of Bahia Blanca, gathered mainly from sites 
in the valley of the Rio Negro. This treatment has the advantage of 
making convenient a comparison of the art of the northern area with 
that of the southern, the differences being somewhat decidedly marked 
and possibly ethnologically significant. 

NORTHERN GROUP 

Use of Beach Pebbles 

The seashore between Mar del Plata and Bahia Blanca furnishes 
in certain localities a liberal supply of beach pebbles of jasper, 
quartzite, and other fine-grained and generally black or dark-colored 
materials. These pebbles are mostly of small size, although occasional 
larger specimens weigh a pound or more. Since the surrounding 
region is poor in materials suitable for the shaping of small chipped 
implements, these pebbles were much sought after by the natives, the 
evidence of this fact occurring at a number of points. The principal 
shaping work consisted in fracturing the pebbles by blows with a 
hammer-stone, delivered generally at one end of the pebble, the other 
resting on a larger stone, conveniently called the anvil-stone. The 
anvil-stones are of various shapes and sizes, being merely suitable 
pieces of local rock — quartzite, sandstones, and limestone (tosca) 
utilized for the purpose. They are characterized by irregular, ragged 
surface pittings, the result, it is believed, of the impact of the pebbles 

1 Usage with regard to the terms chip, flake, spall, and teshoa is not well established, but, in order to avoid 
confusion in this paper, flake is employed as a generic term; chip applies to the smaller flakes; teshoa to large 
flakes, struck from bowlders or pebbles; and spall to large flakes derived from inchoate masses of stone. 



hedliCka] STONE INDUSTRIES OF THE ARGENTINE COAST 



127 




Fig. 3. Anvil of limestone. (£ actual size.) Mar del Plata. 



under treatment (fig. 3). Some of the smaller of these scarred 
stones are flattened on one face by use as grinding stones or mullers, 
while others, as indi- 
cated by the scarred 
edges or peripheries, 
were employed on 
occasion as hammers, 
as illustrated in fig- 
ure 4. 

Numeroushammer- 
stones were found on 
the sites examined 
and many of these 
doubtless pertain to 
the pebble-fracturing 
work. This is indi- 
cated not only by the 
shape and surface 
markings but by their 
close association with 
the anvils and the re- 
fuse of pebble-work- 
ing. In form they are cylindrical, discoidal, globular, ovoid, and 
irregular. Nearly all are quartzite bowlders of suitable proportions 

or are made of that mate- 
rial rudely chipped into 
desired shape. Some are 
battered at the ends merely 
(fig. 5) while others are 
pitted centrally on the 
broad faces and battered 
and scarred on the ends, 
1 ateral margin, or periphery 
(figs. 6-8). The scarring 
of the broad faces may be 
in cases the result of use 
as anvils. It is worthy of 
special note that some of 
the flatter hammers have 
been used as rubbing 
stones or mullers. 

Certain discoidal exam- 
ples have beveled periph- 
eries and these and others (figs. 9-12,) are identical with the stone- 
working hammers of North America. All the above-described forms 





Fig. 4. Anvil-stone of quartzite. 
Mogote. 



(i actual size.) Punta 



128 



BUEEAU OF AMEBIC AN ETHNOLOGY 



[BULL. 52 



were used unhafted. Certain others are grooved roughly or in neat 
fashion and were probably not employed in the stone-shaping work. 
They were hafted and, it may reasonably be assumed, served some 
domestic purpose or on occasion for war and the chase. Examples 
are presented in figs. 13, 14. 





Fig. 5. Bowlder hammer of f elsite, with 
battered ends. {I actual size.) Mira- 
mar. 



Fig. 6. Hammer of felsite, with battered ends and 
pitted sides. (£ actual size.) Necochea. 



Associated with the hammers and anvils scattered liberally over 
the surface of the sites near the beach, as described by Doctor 
Hrdlicka, are the fractured pebbles and the implements and flakage 
made or derived from them. 




Fig. 7. Hammer of quartzite, with pitted faces and battered Fig. 8. Hammer of quartzite, with deep- 
end and sides. (J actual size.) Campo Peralta. ly scarred and pitted faces, (factual 

size.) Mar del Plata. 

The processes employed in fracturing the pebbles have been quite 
simple. It appears that although the free-hand stroke may have 
been in common use for other lands of stone-shaping work, as indi- 
cated by the occurrence of hammers of the type commonly employed 
in free-hand flaking and pecking (figs. 10-12), the pebbles, held usu- 
ally between the fingers and thumb of one hand, were set one end 



hedliCka] STONE INDUSTRIES OF THE ARGENTINE COAST 



129 



upon the anvil-stone while the other end was struck sharp blows 
with the hammer. As a result the ends of the pebbles were split or 




Fig. 9. Discoidal pitted hammer of quartzite, Fig. 10. Hammer made of a felsite bowlder, with 
with beveled periphery. (a actual size.) pitted sides, (i actual size.) Necochea. 

splintered or flakes were driven off. In some cases the blows were 
continued until the ends of the pebbles became quite battered and it 





Fig. 11. Chipped quartzite hammer, with battered 
periphery, (i actual size.) Mar del Plata. 



Fig. 12. Small hammer of greenish fel- 
site. (| actual size.) Necochea. 



is difficult to say always whether the strokes were repeated in the 
attempt to drive off other flakes or to reduce the ends of the pebble 
to a desired shape. It 
is seen that in numer- 
ous cases, as a result 
of the removal of 
flakes, one or both ends 
acquired a somewhat 
ragged edge which 
was squarish or slight- 
ly rounded in or 
notched, giving to the 
object, whenbothends 

Were SO flaked, a Fig. 13. Roughly grooved hammer of quartzite. (factual size.) 

shuttle - like outline Camp0 Peralta - 

(fig. 15). In figure 16 two examples are shown, the first chipped at 

both ends and having the shuttle form and the second a very small 

21535°— Bull. 52—12 9 





130 



BUBEATT OF AMEBICAN ETHNOLOGY 



[bull. 52 



specimen chipped at one end only. Nearly one-third of the worked 
pebbles are chipped thus at one end only. Occasionally examples are 
more elaborately worked, the fracturing having been continued until 

the original surface of the pebble 
was nearly or wholly removed, the 
resulting form being in cases thin 
and somewhat rectangular in out- 
lines (fig. 17) and again entirely 
irregular. 

It is worthy of note that very 
few of the pebbles were chipped 
by strokes on the long margin 
(fig. 18), this fact making it plain that the long side was not gener- 
ally or even frequently intended to be elaborated as the edge of an 
implement, as was usual in many sections; it is equally plain that 





Fig. 14. Neatly shaped grooved hammer of sand- 
stone, (factual size.) Punta Mogote. 





Fig. 15. Quartzite pebbles chipped at both ends, having a shuttle-like 
outline. (| actual size.) Campo Peralta. 

flakes, if these were the object of the work, derived from the sides 
were either difficult to make or on account of size, or shape, unsuited 
for the purpose of the flaker. 




aba b 

Fig. 16. Small jasper pebbles, one chipped Fig. 17. Pebbles chipped into subrectangular forms, 
at both ends and the other at one end (factual size.) a, Jasper (Campo Peralta). 6, Felsite 
only, (factual size.) Campo Peralta. (Miramar). 

It is observed that the pebbles selected for chipping were usually 
oblong and flattish in form, these being chosen, undoubtedly, because 



hrdliCka] STONE INDUSTRIES OF THE ARGENTINE COAST 



131 



they yielded the requisite result more readily than any other. Again, 
it is equally plain that the stroke on the end was expected to produce 
a particular kind of result and two results only could have been 
desired or anticipated: (1) the making of flattish, round, or oblong 
sharp-edged flakes of the teshoa 1 type (fig. 22, b) for use of the cutting 
edge or for elaboration by secondary chipping; (2) the shaping of 
one or both ends of the body of 
the pebble for use as an imple- 
ment. We are therefore called 
upon to determine whether one 
or both of these results were 
actually utilized and in what 
way. 

That there was a definite pur- 
pose in view for the flakes made 
seems practically certain. Split 
pebbles and especially large 
teshoa flakes were almost universally employed by primitive peoples 
for cutting and scraping as well as for elaboration into projectile 
points and other implements. Perhaps the most universally employed 
stone implement of Argentina is the plano-convex knife blade or 
scraper, the simplest and most readily made type of which is the 
teshoa flake. An examination of the flaked pebbles — the nuclei — 
collected on the shore-land sites, shows that most of the flakes 
driven off were quite small, but that many were large enough for 





Fig. 18. Jasper pebbles chipped irregularly from 
the side. (1 actual size.) a (Campo Peralta). 
b (Necochea). 





a b c 

Fig. 19. Flakes from black j asper pebbles specialized for use as knives 

or scrapers, (factual size.) Kecochea. 

use as knives and scrapers is shown by the presence in the collection 
of a dozen or more specimens which have been specialized by remov- 
ing, probably with a pressure implement, a number of small chips 
from one margin of the convex face to make the cutting edge more 
stable and effective (fig. 19). Others by more abrupt chipping were 
especially fitted for use as scrapers, while many others, both large 
and small, probably served for cutting and scraping without secondary 

1 This form of flake was found by Dr. Joseph Leidy, of the Hayden Geological Survey, in common use 
among the Shoshoni Indians of Wyoming for scraping skins and is thus conveniently referred to by its 
Shoshoni name. 



132 



BUKEAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 



[BULL. 52 



chipping. No one can estimate the number of these flakes that were 
carried away for use elsewhere. The flakes thus utilized were usually 
substantial portions of the pebble, having a body of considerable 
strength and one keenly incisive edge. The relation of the half 
pebble to the several varieties of flakes will be understood by an 
examination of figure 20. When split into approximate halves as 
indicated in a, the pebble yields two potential implements, but 
generally with thick margins, not particularly well suited to any 
purpose without further elaboration. The well-proportioned teshoa 
flake & has on the other hand a rounded margin at the top and a thin 
incisive margin below, well suited for immediate use for cutting or 
scraping. 

It may be remarked that comparatively few of the specialized 
flakes are found in our collections, but if they were really the designed 
product of the chipping work, they would not have been left, except 






Fig. 20. The several forms of flakes, a, Split pebble. 6, Large teshoa flake, c, Small flakes or chips. 

incidentally, on these sites, but would have been carried away to the 
permanent dwelling places for utilization in the practice of the primi- 
tive tribal arts. No form of pebble other than the long flattish one 
would yield suitable flakes so readily and no other process would be 
more effective in producing these flakes than that employing the 
hammer and anvil. 

As a result of the above considerations, it is manifest that the 
larger flakes made on these sites were much utilized, and it remains 
to consider the possible utilization of the remaining portions of the 
pebbles. 

The pebbles from which the flakes were detached by strokes of the 
hammer — the nuclei— took certain shapes already described and 
fully illustrated in figures 15-17. The questions of their purpose, 
if they represent a purpose, and their use, if they were really intended 
to be used, require particular attention. 

There can be no doubt that these pebble nuclei occur on sites where 
the pebbles were collected and worked by a Stone-age people. The 



HRDLifKA] STONE INDUSTRIES OF THE ARGENTINE COAST 133 

presence of the hammers, anvils, and flakes make this entirely clear. 
That they were left on these sites in large numbers is attested by the 
many examples obtained by collectors. No one will claim that these 
sites along the arid seashore were very largely occupied for dwelling 
or for any industrial purpose other than that of making stone imple- 
ments and it is safe to conclude that if the pebble nuclei were used 
at all, it was in the stone-shaping work, but we are entirely at a loss 
to imagine how these could have served in shaping any of the known 
implements of the Argentine coast. 

That these flaked pebbles were not intended to be held in the hand 
as hatchets, chisels, or scrapers, is apparent from the fact that a 
majority of them are fractured at both ends and are so uneven as to 
injure the hand if thus used. The fact that all are not fractured at 
both ends signifies nothing more than that the fracturing blow or 
blows took effect at one end of the pebble only instead of at both as 
was more usual. Their shapes do not indicate in any way that they 
were intended for hafting, although hafting after the manner of 
hatchets, scrapers, or knives would not be difficult, either by setting 
them in a socket in a handle of wood or bone, or by fastening the 
haft about the middle by means of thongs; but there is no reason 
for assuming their utilization in any of these ways. 

In advancing any theory of a possible purpose or use for these 
objects, we are met by the significant fact that they were left in large 
numbers on the sites of manufacture, whereas if intended for use 
they would not have been left but rather would have been distributed 
far and wide, especially to the sites of permanent dwellings in the 
vicinity of a fresh-water supply. That they have no particular 
adaptation for use is made apparent by an examination of the flaked 
ends, which are notched and bruised from the hammer blows and 
are rarely so even-edged as to fit them for cutting and scraping. The 
strongest claim they have to serious consideration is that in cases 
the flaked ends present an appearance of wear as if from use. This 
appearance is limited to a blunting or rounding of some of the frac- 
tured ends; but a close inspection shows that this result is such as 
might be produced and in all probability was produced by the repeated 
blows of the hammer in attempts to detach desirable flakes. That 
these chipped pebbles were occasionally devoted incidentally to some 
purpose to which they happened to be adapted is probable, but the 
claim that they were designed for any particular use can not be 
substantiated. 

The facts that they were left on the sites of manufacture, that they 
show no clear adaptation to any particular use, that they present no 
certain evidence of having been used, that they show no trace of 
specialization beyond that produced by the direct blows of the 
hammer on the ends, and that the flakes made from them were used 



134 



BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 



[BULL. 52 



for most important and constant needs, tend to show in no uncertain 
manner that they were merely the reject age of flake-making cast 
aside as of no particular value. 

Feeling that the settlement of the questions here raised is of con- 
siderable interest and importance, the writer undertook certain 
experiments in pebble-working, the results of which are instructive. 
A large number of pebbles of the same general form as those used on 
the Argentine coast were gathered from gravel banks in the suburbs 
of Washington and subjected to tests which were, however, not 
altogether satisfactory for the reason that the pebbles were of quartz, 
most of them much flawed, or of quartzite, often tough, coarse- 
grained, and partially disintegrated. They were much more difficult 
to flake than the more homogeneous and fine-grained pebbles of the 
Argentine sites. 




The principal percussive methods of stone flaking, 
hand method. 



a, The anvil method, b, The free 



Proceeding on the theory, well supported by the facts just recited, 
that the principal object of the chipping work on the shore-land sites 
was the making of flakes suitable for knives, scrapers, and projectile 
points, and recognizing no other ideal toward which the aboriginal 
work could have been directed, effort was confined entirely to the 
production of such flakes. The pebble, held firmly between the 
thumb and fingers of the left hand, was set vertically on the anvil- 
stone and struck sharp blows with the hammer held in the right 
hand (fig. 21). This process was in occasional if not very common 
use among numerous North American tribes, the free-hand method (b) 
being more generally employed. These processes are almost equally 
effective in the making of simple flakes, but the former is effective in 
the work of crude primary fracture only, while the latter is capable of 
carrying forward a considerable degree of specialization of the imple- 



hrdliCka! STONE INDUSTRIES OF THE ARGENTINE COAST 



135 



ment forms. The result of the hammer stroke varied with the 
strength of the blow, the character of the pebble material, and the 
degree of hardness of the anvil-stone. The first stroke, if strong, 
shattered the pebble, split it into nearly equal parts, or removed 
flakes from one or both faces. When the anvil was of hard stone, 
the lower end of the pebble was also fractured, yielding flakes identi- 
cal with those produced by the direct impact of the hammer. When 
the pebble was of tough or refractory material, several strokes were 
often delivered and with increasing vigor before even a single flake 
of moderate size was driven off. Continuation of the effort was 
encouraged by the fact that satisfactory flakes were often secured 
after the end of the pebble had become well battered. When it 
became apparent that further effort must be futile, the mutilated 
pebble was abandoned as mere waste. But whether good flakes were 
secured or not, the ends of the pebble under the hammer took forms 
entirely familiar to the student of the Argentine artifacts. In many 






Fig. 22. Adventitious origin of the crescentic edge and the gouge shape of the pebble nucleus, 
a, The arrow point indicates the direction of the hammer blow, b, The flake removed and the 
slightly hollow bed left, c, The result of additional blows on the upper end of the pebble. 

cases the fractured ends developed an incipient, yet purely adven- 
titious, edge which was often bruised and dulled in such a way as to 
present the appearance of wear from use in some kind of manual 
operation. 

Furthermore, it should not escape attention that the hollowed 
out, gougelike edge which appears in many cases and is interpreted 
by some to be the result of design, is purely adventitious. This is 
proved by the experiments made. The hammer stroke on the end 
of the pebble removes a flake from one face, leaving a slightly con- 
cave bed, which is deeper at the point of percussion (fig. 22, a), and 
a crescentic edge (fig. 22, b). A few additional strokes, designed to 
remove flakes from the other face of the pebble nucleus, bruises this 
edge and possibly removes small chips, giving the appearance of 
wear in use, and at the same time often deepens the notch, as shown 
at c. Proof that this nucleus is an implement showing design and 



136 



BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 



[BULL. 52 



traces of use is thus entirely wanting. The fact that the pebble was 
nearly always an oblong one and flaked from the end has been used 
to support the view that the fractured end was intended to be used 
for cutting, scraping, or some like purpose. The experiments, 
made, however, with a view to settling this point show that it is 







c d 

Fig. 23. Examples of flaked pebbles from Argentina and District of Columbia, a, Pebble nucleus 
of fine-grained stone from the Argentine coast, from which two teshoa flakes were struck by the 
ancient workmen, b, Coarse-grained Potomac pebble nucleus from which flakes were struck by 
the author with two blows, c, The flakes restored to their place on the nucleus, d, The several 
flakes separated from the nucleus. 

more difficult to strike off a well-proportioned flake from the side 
than from the end of a pebble. Besides, a stroke having enough 
force to remove a large flake from the long margin of a pebble usually 
resulted in cross-fracture and failure. In fact, all the features of 



BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 



BULLETIN 52 PLATE 12 




PEBBLE NUCLEI 



(Actual size) 



Forms resulting from attempts to produce flakes of a size suitable for use as implements: 6, c, d, i,j, 
from the Hrdlifika Argentine collection; a, e, f, g, ft, k, made by W. H. Holmes from Washington 
pebbles. 



hedliCka] STONE INDUSTRIES OF THE ARGENTINE COAST 



137 



the so-called pebble implements of the Argentine coastal sites — the 
chisel and shuttlelike shapes, the notched and curved edge and the 
appearance of wear from use — are exactly duplicated in the forms 
produced by these experiments. 

As a result of his experiments, the writer is confirmed in the view 
that the hammer-anvil work was aimed at the production of the 
plano-convex flakes intended for use, unspecialized or specialized 






Fig. 24. Chipped implements of black jasper* 
(£ actual size.) a, Leaf-shaped blade (Arroyo 
Corrientes) . 6, Rude blade, probably a reject 
from arrow-making (Necochea). 



Fig. 25. Spikelike forms of black jasper 
pebble derivation, possibly rejects from 
arrow-making. (J actual size.) o, Mi- 
ramar. 6, Necochea. 



as knives or scrapers, or for elaboration into other forms of imple- 
ments, and that the body of the pebble, the nucleus, was not in- 
tended as an implement at all, and was never used as such, unless 
incidentally. Experiment can hardly fail to convince the most 
skeptical of the correctness of this view. Examples of the forms 
resulting from the experimental work are included in plate 12 in 
association with specimens of like genesis left by the ancient inhab- 
itants of the Argentine coast. 
Figure 23 is intended to illus- 
trate further the pebble-frac- 
turing work. In a we have a 
pebble nucleus from the Ar- 
gentine coast from which two 
flakes have been removed by 
one, or at most, two strokes 
of the hammer. These flakes 
were of the teshoa type and 
doubtless served some useful 
purpose for the maker. Forms 
b and c represent a Potomac pebble of similar shape which shows 
the result of two experimental blows with the hammer. In b the 
flakes have been removed. In c they are replaced, and in d they 
are separately shown. It may be added here that the hammer- 
stones and anvil-stones used in the experimental work described 
above display, as the result of the fracturing work, markings iden- 





Fig. 26. Scrapers of jasper, (factual size.) a, Duck- 
bill scraper of brown jasper (Necochea). b, Flat 
scraper of olive jasper (Monte Hermoso). 



138 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

tical with those of the corresponding implements of the Argentine 
collection. 

It is observed that the ancient pebble workers of the Argentine 
coast rarely aimed to make the ordinary leaf blade from the body 
of the pebble, as was the usual practice with primitive pebble workers 
elsewhere in roughing out projectile points and knives. Between 
Mar del Plata and Bahia Blanca only a single well-finished, pressure- 
chipped blade of ordinary leaf-shape type, made probably from a 
large pebble flake (fig. 24, -a) was obtained by Doctor Hrdlicka. It 
may have been designed as an arrowhead, the trimming and notch- 
ing being incomplete. Another specimen, from Necochea, is slightly 
worked on both sides apparently by free-hand percussion, but it 
was probably discarded unfinished on account of the development 
of a high irregular hump on one face (fig. 24, b). 

A few spikelike forms, closely related to the preceding, made 
from black pebble flakes, and specialized by rather irregular chipping 
on both margins of the convex face and remaining flat on the other, 
occur in the collection (fig. 25). 

The collection of pebble-derived implements contains also an 
example of the duck-bill scraper made of a flake of brown jasper. It 
was picked up by Doctor Hrdlicka, at Necochea (fig. 26, a) . A second 
scraper of olive jasper, of related but less typical form, was found by 
the expedition, at Monte Hermoso (fig. 26, b). 

It would appear from the foregoing examinations and experiments 
that the pebble workers employed anvil-stones and plain and pitted 
hammer-stones as well as pressure implements (probably of bone), in 
the shaping work and that the forms made include four varieties of 
implements; the teshoa blade either unmodified or sharpened by 
flaking on one or both margins; the spikelike form with flat under 
surface and high back; the duck-bill scraper; and the leaf -shaped 
blade worked on both faces. According to the evidence as interpreted 
by Hrdlicka and Willis, the same people which shaped and used these 
implements used also the mortars, pestles, mullers, grooved ham- 
mers, bolas-stones, and pottery, as well as the quartzite implements 
yet to be described, found on the same sites. 

The use of the dark shore pebbles and the implements made from 
them, as exemplified by the Hrdlicka- Willis collection, extended 
from Mar del Plata to below Viedma, a distance along the coast, as 
already mentioned, of approximately 400 miles. It may be observed 
here that identical archeologic conditions continue along the Argentine 
coast to the north of Mar del Plata and along the coast of Uruguay. 
Explorations having been confined in the main to coast localities, 
the collection throws but little light on the distribution inland of these 
artifacts. However, one of the black worked pebbles was collected 
on the beach of the Laguna de los Padres, about ten miles inland. 



hrdliCka] STONE INDUSTRIES OF THE ARGENTINE COAST 
Chipped White Quartzites 



139 



The collection embraces many hundreds of chipped articles, flakes, 
and fragments made of a fine-grained, light-colored, somewhat glassy 
quartzite, a material not found along the coast, but obtained presum- 
ably from outcrops in the hills to the west. Occasionally small masses, 
apparently nuclei from which fragments and flakes have been broken 
off, are encountered along the coast, and one specimen of this kind 




Fig. 27. Nucleus of quartzite from which flakes have 
been removed. (J actual size.) Campo Peralta. 



Fig. 28. Arrow points of quartzite. 
(J actual size.) Campo Peralta. 



weighing several pounds was brought away by Doctor Hrdlicka (fig. 27). 
These quartzite objects occur invariably in intimate association with 
the dark-pebble implements on the shore-land sites. They include 
arrowheads, duck-bill scrapers, flat-faced (plano-convex) blades, and 
spike- or drill-like forms, as well as numerous fragments and flakes — 







a bed 

Fig. 29. Quartzite scrapers of duck-bill type, a, b, c, Campo Peralta. d, Necochea. 

the refuse of local chipping. Examples are illustrated in the accom- 
panying figures. The arrowheads are few in number and of ordinary 
types (fig. 28). The numerous scrapers, characterized by abruptly 
beveled edges, or more properly, ends (fig. 29), are identical with the 
scrapers used by the tribes south of Bahia Blanca as well as by many 
other tribes in both South and North America. They were prob- 



140 



BUEEAU OP AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 



[bull. 52 



ably hafted much as are the scrapers of the Tehuelche of to-day 

(% 30). 

A number of blades, flat on one face 
and in cases handsomely chipped on 
the other, are especially noteworthy and 
may have served either as knives or as 
scrapers. As a rule, one of the edges is 
more decidedly curved outward than 
the other and more carefully worked, as 
seen in the illustrations (fig. 31). 

These wide blades (see pi. 14), which 
appear to occur throughout the pampas 
region and down to southern Patagonia 
(Hatcher collection) , grade into narrower 
plano-convex forms, the chipped face 
being decidedly arched or ridged (fig. 
32, a), and these pass into spikelike 
forms (fig. 32, b), which may in cases 
be rude or abortive projectile points. 
However, all of these could have served 
as scrapers while the more slender forms 
could have been used as drills. 

It is a noteworthy fact that the entire 
series of white quartzite artifacts, up- 
ward of 400 in number, contains only a 
dozen specimens chipped on both faces. 
Only two of the dark-pebble artifacts 
out of many hundreds of specimens are 
thus chipped. The dissimilarities be- 
tween the white quartzite and the coast- 
pebble work referred to above may be 
interpreted by some as indicating differ- 
ences in the people concerned, or widely 
separated periods of occupation, yet it 
should not be forgotten that the form 
and nature of the two kinds of raw ma- 
terial are so unlike as to account for 
somewhat marked dissimilarities, both 
in processes and in forms made, even if 
utilized by the same people at the same 
period. 




Fig. 30. a, Hafted Tehuelche scraper of 
duck-bill type, made of green bottle 
glass, (i actual size.) Hatcher col- 
lection (southern Patagonia), b, The 
scraper removed from the handle for 
comparison with the ancient types. 
The strong curve was imposed by the 
curve of the glass fragment. 



DOMESTIC UTENSILS 



Evidences of more or less sedentary occupancy of the coastal region 
are found in the presence on the various sites, of articles of domestic 



hkdliCka] STONE INDUSTRIES OF THE ARGENTINE COAST 



141 




use, as mortars, pestles, mullers, and hammer-stones, in intimate asso- 
ciation with the dark-colored and the light-colored stone implements 
described above, made of 
local materials, chiefly 
quartzite and sandstone. 
Their form in cases is so 
highly specialized and 
typical as to enable us to 
say with confidence that 
the makers were well ad- 
vanced in the arts of bar- 
barian life, and no good 
reason appears in the 
manner of their occur- 
rence or in the specimens 
themselves for assuming 
that all do not pertain to 
the same or to kindred 
peoples and to the same or 
approximately the same 
time. Hammers or club- 
heads, which may have 
served in the domestic 
arts or in war and the 
chase are illustrated in 
figures 13 and 14. Two 
mortars, one a block of 
quartzite with a shallow 
depression in the upper 
surface and the other a large fragment of the same stone with a 
deeper depression, are included in the collection. A muller or muller- 

pestle of remarkable proportions is 
shown in figure 33; this is a sym- 
metrical, well-finished slab of gritty 
sandstone 20f inches long, 7| inches 
wide at the widest part, and If 
inches thick. The flat faces, toward 
the middle, are somewhat smoothed 
by use. The feature that distin- 
guishes this from kindred utensils 
is the narrowing to a point at one 
end. Another specimen of similar 
type, but smaller, is represented by a 
large fragment. A cylindricalpestle 
with a tapering top, made of the same stone as the above, is shown in 
figure 34; this is 7\ inches long and 3 inches in diameter and is 





Fig. 31. Plano-convex blades<>f white quartzite, showing the 
carefully chipped convex faces and the profiles, (i actual 
size.) Campo Peralta. a, Neatly chipped and thin. 6, 
High back and of reject type, c, Curved edge carefully 
chipped, d, Both edges carefully chipped. 





Fig. 32. a, Narrow high-backed blad e of quartz- 
ite. (| actual size.) Laguna Malacara. b, 
Spikelike form of quartzite. (| actual size.) 
Playa Peralta. 



142 



BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 



[BOLL, 52 



smoothed at the larger end by use. Three other pestles somewhat 
pointed at both ends are slightly flattened on one side by use as 
mullers. One rectangular muller with rounded corners and margins, 

5| inches long, 3 J inches wide, and 
2| inches thick, made of quartzite, 
■W is smoothed and flattened on one 
face by use. 



SOUTHERN GROUP RIO NEGRO 

DISTRICT 




mi 



R M 



Fig. 33. Quartzite muller-pestle of exceptional 
size and shape. (f actual size.) Campo Pe- 
ralta. 



The collections made by Doctor 
Hrdlicka in the southern area, 
principally on sites about the 
mouth of the Rio Negro, number 
several hundred objects, including 
mortars, pestles, mullers, anvils, 
hammers, bolas-stones, and an ex- 
tensive series of chipped imple- 
ments, unfinished chipped forms, 
and the refuse of chipping opera- 
tions. The larger implements, 
chiefly domestic utensils, are much 
like corresponding varieties to the 
north of Bahia Blanca. The well- 
specialized mortars, pestles, and 
mullers were shaped by the pecking- 
abrading processes from masses of quartzite and sandstone. Excel- 
lent examples of mortars made of sandstone are shown in figure 35. 
The numerous mullers are well-shaped and finished and range in 
form from discoidal to subrectangular outlines. Two 
specimens are illustrated in figure 36, a, b. A cigar- 
shaped pestle made of quartzite, 15 inches in length 
and 2 J inches in diameter at the middle part, is shown 
in figure 37, a. It tapers gradually from the middle 
to the rounded points. The surface, which has been 
finished by pecking, is somewhat smoothed by use 
toward the ends. A second specimen, made of sand- 
stone, 16 inches in length, is unsymmetric in shape 
and appears to be unfinished. It is larger at the lower 
end and tapers somewhat irregularly to a rounded 
point at the top. The fragment of a third pestle 
is shown in figure 37, b. 

An exceptional specimen is the broad blade of an axlike imple- 
ment, the upper portion or poll of which has been lost. It is made 




Fig. 34. Pestle of 
gritty sandstone. 
(| actual size.) 
Mar del Plata. 



hkdliCka] STONE INDUSTRIES OF THE ARGENTINE COAST 



143 



of sandstone, the surface being rather unevenly ground off. An 
engraved design appears on the lower part of the blade, as shown in 
figure 38. Axes of this general type prevail over a wide area in 
South America and extend even into the West Indies. The rather 
dull edge bears slight traces of use, but the presence of the orna- 
mental figure suggests employment in some ceremonial office. 





Fig. 35. Mortars of sandstone, (| actual size.) a, San Bias district. 6, Viedma. 

There is a noteworthy scarcity of chipped pebbles of the type 
found in so great abundance up the coast, but this is probably due 
in large part to the fact that the district does not furnish the variety 
of pebbles so much sought and used in the north. Half a dozen 
anvil-fractured specimens were found near Viedma and 4 miles 
south of that place were collected on a site occupied in recent times 
by the natives, two pitted and scarred hammer- anvils, one of which 
has been used as a muller (fig. 39). The white quartzite of the north 





a b 

Fig. 36. Mullers. (£ actual size.) a, Granite, well polished. (Viedma.) b, Sandstone. (San Bias 

District.) 

is absent. The chipped forms are distinct in a number of respects 
from both the pebble and the white quartzite implements of the north- 
ern area. They consist of projectile points, knives, drills, and 
scrapers, together with unspecialized leaf-shaped blades and the 
rejectage of blade -making. The material was obtained in the main 
from rather large water- worn pieces of jasper and other free-fracturing 
rocks and was rough-shaped by free-hand percussion with a hammer- 



144 



BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 



[BULL. 52 




stone and finished with a pressure implement. Practically all of 

the well-developed forms are of leaf-blade genesis, specialization having 

taken different directions according to the implement to be made. 
The few scrapers were made from flakes of 
proximate shape and correspond closely in 
type with the duck-bill scrapers of the white 
quartzite and pebble groups. The plano- 
convex knife-blades and the spikelike forms 
so common in the white quartzite and shore- 
pebble groups are of rare occurrence. Incip- 
ient blades unfinished or rejected because of 
imperfect fracture, of which there are numer- 
ous examples, are shown in figure 40,* and 
a series of forms illustrating the relation of 
the first step in the shaping work to the more 
finished and specialized forms is given in figure 
41. The ruder specimens are sometimes re- 
ferred to as "paleolithic," but without other 
reason than that they are not well-finished. 
It is not assumed that the final form in this 
series is the only one that may have been 
employed as an implement, but the lack of 
specialization or careful finish of point or edge 
in the ruder forms supports the assumption 
that these were not finished implements. 

A representative series of the arrowheads 
appears in plate 13 and a typical drill-point 

or awl is shown in figure 42. 

To the North American student the most striking characteristic of 

these flaked forms is their remarkable , , . : 

analogy with North American types. 

The entire collection from the Rio 

Negro could be thrown together with 

corresponding collections from Ari- 
zona, Georgia, or New Jersey with the 

practical certainty that the student 

would be unable to separate more than 

a few of the specimens of the several FlG - 38 - Axlike blade of sandstone, bear- 

x ing engraved design (tactual size.) Pu- 

regions. ertoSanBlas. 




Fig. 37. Pestles. (} actual 
size.) a, Quartzite pestle of 
cigar shape (San Bias Dis- 
trict), b, Sandstone pestle, 
fragment (San Bias District). 




ETHNIC BEARING 



A study of the lithic art of the region under consideration brings 
into prominence the fact that three groups of chipped artifacts, pre- 
senting certain noteworthy resemblances and differences, are repre- 
sented. These groups are the hammer-anvil worked pebbles of the 



BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 



BULLETIN 52 PLATE 13 




ARROWHEADS OF JASPER AND AGATE 

From the vicinity of San Bias. 



(f actual size) 



hrdliCka] STONE INDUSTRIES OF THE ARGENTINE COAST 



145 



coastwise sites and the several specialized varieties of implements of 
pebble origin belonging with them; the chipped white quartzites of 
the same localities; and the chipped artifacts of the southern or Rio 
Negro area. In addition there are the various pecked-abraded 
domestic utensils and weapons apparently common to the entire 
region examined. The question is necessarily raised as to whether 





Fig. 39. Hammer-anvil of quartzite, used secondarily as a muller. (i actual size.) Viedma. 

more than one people is represented and the archeologist is called on 
to point out the bearing of the evidence. 

It may be said that in any area occupied by primitive peoples 
having a range as great as 400 miles in length of coastal territory, it 
is to be expected that more than one tribe, possibly more than one 
linguistic stock, would be found, even at one and the same period. 
In California a dozen stocks occupy a like extent of coast at the 
present day. The culture of such contemporaneous tribes is not 

necessarily identi- 
cal, but on the con- 
trary is often de- 
cidedly unlike, and 
it does not seem 
unreasonable to 
suppose that sepa- 
rate tribes prac- 
ticing forms of art 
in chipped stone 
as distinctive as 
those enumerated above should have occupied the middle coastal 
region of Argentina at one and the same time. 

However, comparing the white quartzite work with the coast-peb- 
ble work, we find the artifacts of both groups distributed over 
exactly the same sites, never apart, and in like relations to the present 
surface of the country, which is a surface of to-day rather than of any 
21535°— Bull. 52—12 10 





Fig. 40. Leaf-shaped blades of brown jasper, probably rejects of manu. 
facture. (i actual size.) San Bias. 



146 



BTJBEAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 



[bull. 52 



early period. We find the plano-convex knife blade (pi. 14), the 
spikelike plano-convex point (figs. 25, 32), the symmetric doubly 
convex leaf-blade (figs. 24, 28), the duck-bill scraper (figs. 26, 29), and 
the chipping hammers in both groups. The use of the fracturing and 
the pressure implement in the shaping work was apparently common 
to both. The specialized arrowhead is found in the quartzite group 




Pig. 41. Series of jasper leaf forms representing successive steps in the specialization of arrow points. 

(J actual size.) San Bias. 

only and in that but rarely. The anvil-stone can not be shown to be 
characteristic of either of the groups exclusively, although it certainly 
pertains in large measure to the pebble group, while the chipped 
pebbles are necessarily confined to the shore-pebble group. Fuller 
collections might show even still closer correspondence between the 
two groups. The differences do not seem so radical as to preclude 
the idea that a single people or closely related groups of people were 
responsible for all the chipped-stone work of these more northeastern 
coastal sites. This likelihood is considerably strengthened by the 
fact that differences in kind and form of material im- 
pose distinctions in the processes and in the things 
made. 

Comparing the whole work of the northern groups 
with that south of Bahia Blanca, it is seen that cer- 
tain culture differences are quite marked. The prev- 
alence of leaf -blade forms (fig. 41) and leaf-blade 
implements, variously specialized arrowheads and 
spearheads (pi. 13), and drill points (fig. 42), contrasts 
with the absence or decided rarity of these forms in 
the north. The rarity of the plano-convex knife blade (pi. 14) in the 
Rio Negro District (although it is common in southern Patagonia) is a 
noteworthy fact. The duck-bill scraper occurs much less frequently 
here than in the quartzite group of the north. The shaping processes 
are the same throughout, although the use of the anvil-stone was 
apparently exceptional in the south, being there devoted to the 
fracturing of pebbles and hence confined to the pebble-yielding areas. 




Fig. 42. Drill-point 
of jasper. (£ ac- 
tual size.) San 
Bias. 



BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 



BULLETIN 52 PLATE 14 




PLANO-CONVEX KNIFE BLADES 



(| actual size) 



From three widely separated groups: a, 6, c, from the coast-pebble group; d, e, f, from the white 
quartzite group; g, h, i, from southern Vatagoaia (Hatcher collection). (See fig. 31.) 



hrdliCka] STONE INDUSTRIES OF THE ARGENTINE COAST 147 

Bolas-stones of globular and ovoid forms are widely distributed 
over the area studied, but they are not made of local materials, and 
if Hatcher is right the bolas represents a very recent period, having 
superseded the bow and arrow as a weapon, after the acquisition of 
horses by the natives. 

On the whole, in the writer's view the differences in general aspect 
between the northern and southern groups of chipped-stone artifacts 
are so pronounced as to favor the assumption that the two regions 
were occupied by peoples having somewhat distinct cultures — cul- 
tures, however, not differing very decidedly in grade, and presenting, 
as indicated above, numerous features in common. 

That the aboriginal cultures of Argentina represented by the avail- 
able collections are not separated by wide differences of culture grade 
and time is strongly suggested by the presence throughout Argentina 
of at least two flaked implements of highly specialized type, the plano- 
convex knife blade and the duck-bill scraper. In plate 14 are shown 
photographic reproductions of three bevel-edge knives {a, b, c), 
belonging to the coast-pebble group and made of black-pebble teshoas ; 
three of the same type of white quartzite from the white quartzite 
group (d, e, /); and three from Patagonia (Hatcher collection) 
(g, Ji, i). The duck-bill scraper is of almost universal occurrence. 
The slight differences in general shape and specialization of the edge 
are only such as would readily arise in the utilization of different 
kinds and forms of material by the same people and for a common 
purpose. 

The presence over the entire area north and south, of domestic 
utensils of ordinary types and weapons of well-specialized forms may 
be variously interpreted. It may be thought to indicate a well- 
advanced people of general distribution quite distinct from the tribes 
responsible for the three groups of chipped-stone implements, or it 
may be regarded with more reason as indicating that the same or 
kindred peoples responsible for all the cultural phenomena extended 
over the whole area, the peculiar varieties of chipped-stone work 
being merely local developments due to peculiarities of local materials 
and activities. 

The writer is well aware that other finds may have been made or 
may yet be made which will either entirely obliterate or, on the other 
hand, decidedly emphasize the differences here noted. So diversified 
are the elements to be considered in this study and so limited rela- 
tively to the extent of territory the materials at hand, that the 
archeologist can not assume to reach definite and final results with 
respect to the peoples concerned, but it seems safe to conclude that 
although different tribes or racial groups may be represented, there 
is no satisfactory evidence that the cultures were widely separated 
from one another in grade or essentially distinct from the culture of 
the tribes occupying the region in historic times. 



148 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

CHRONOLOGIC BEARING 

The many hundreds of relics included in the collection were all 
obtained from the surface. None are known to have held any 
synchronous relation with the geologic formations, save with the sur- 
face soil, the shifting sands and sand dunes, and such other recently 
rearranged deposits as are constantly forming under the never- 
ceasing action of wind, water, and gravity along the outcropping 
edges of imperfectly consolidated strata. The chronologic order of 
these unstable deposits is of little consequence in these investigations 
since no sequence involving measurable periods of time can be estab- 
lished. 

The facts that all varieties of the artifacts bear the same relation 
to habitable sites and to the seashore of to-day throughout nearly the 
entire region and that shapes and processes of manufacutre in all the 
groups, though differing in certain respects, have important features 
in common, as already pointed out, antagonize any theory of wide 
separation of periods. 

The relation of the pebble-working sites to the coast line of to-day 
has a most important bearing on the theory of geologic antiquity for 
any of the relics of man's handiwork. It is seen that these sites 
which yield such large numbers of both the dark-pebble and the 
white-quartzite artifacts are ranged along the bluffs and slopes 
facing the sea. But the ocean front is not a stable line. It is not 
to-day where it was a century or a millenium ago. During the early 
stages of the Recent period (by which is meant the time since the 
land surface assumed approximately its present relative altitude) it 
probably lay farther out to the south and east. If this assumption 
be correct, it should be explained why the people of the auroral days 
of this period brought the pebbles from a distant shore to work them 
up and utilize them in the localities examined by Doctor Hrdlicka. 
It would seem that if the pebble artifacts belong to the Recent period 
at all, they belong to its closing phases, during which the relations 
of the land and sea were practically the same as we find them to-day. 

Again, if the pebble-using people occupied the region during either 
Quaternary or Pliocene time, how shall we arrange to have them 
occupy a series of sites along the line which just now happens to 
have become the shore of the sea between Mar del Plata and Bahia 
Blanca ? Or are we to suppose that these people occupied the whole 
of the pampean region so fully during any one of these periods that 
the sea front at any and every stage of its recession toward the high- 
land should yield to the archeologists of the time the rich harvest 
reaped by our representatives to-day? The number of specimens 
required to stock the whole of the pampas at this rate would be beyond 
the possibility of computation. 



hkdliCka] STONE INDUSTRIES OF THE ARGENTINE COAST 149 

Besides we should also inquire as to where dwellers on the land 
surface exposed during either of the periods referred to could have 
obtained the pebbles which now occur only along the present beach. 
Can we explain the manner in which a people occupying a Pliocene 
horizon, for example (which, to accommodate these inhabitants, 
must have had for the time a suitable land surface), obtained a 
supply of pebbles belonging in underlying beds of an earlier period, 
since none occur, so far as Hrdlicka and Willis have observed, in 
contemporaneous or superior formations. Is it to be assumed that 
the tribes of that time found the seashore with its bluffs and seaward 
slopes and supply of pebbles conveniently exposed as they are to-day 
and all along a line connecting Mar del Plata with Bahia Blanca ? 

Questions like these can readily be asked, but not so readily 
answered, and since the writer has great difficulty in answering them 
affirmatively, he finds it necessary to adopt the view that the tribes 
responsible for the several groups of relics collected by Hrdlicka and 
Willis along the Argentine littoral occupied the various sites visited 
in recent centuries, under conditions corresponding in all essen- 
tial respects with those of the present day. Nothing short of per- 
fectly authenticated finds of objects of art in undisturbed forma- 
tions of fully established geologic age will justify science in accepting 
the theory of Quaternary or Tertiary occupants for Argentine. 

The writer has pleasure in observing that Dr. Felix F. Outes, of the 
National University, La Plata, Argentina, has given careful attention 
to the antiquities of the pampean coast and to the relation of these 
to the several geologic formations, and after visiting and thoroughly 
examining all the more important sites, has presented the whole 
group of phenomena in a way that in the end, with possibly slight 
exceptions, must meet with general approval. 1 

Subsequent to the completion of the foregoing pages Doctor 
Hrdlicka drew attention to certain specimens collected by him along 
the barranca at Monte Hermoso, which had escaped particular notice 
on the writer's part. Attention was directed also to a brief pam- 
phlet just received from Doctor Ameghino, 2 describing a series of 
similar specimens collected by him while examining this same bar- 
ranca in company with Doctor Hrdlicka. Considering the nature of 
the specimens and the manner of their occurrence, the observations 
and interpretation of Doctor Ameghino are so remarkable that the 
writer is constrained to refer to them in some detail. 

The objects in question are about 20 freshly-fractured chips and 
fragments of coarse, partially fire-reddened quartzite, a larger frag- 

1 Outes, Felix F., Sobre una facies local de los instrumentos neoliticos Bonaerenses; in Revista del Museo 
de La Plata, xvi, Buenos Aires, 1909. 

2 Ameghino, Florentino, La industria de la piedra quebrada en el inioceno superior de Monte Hermoso, 
Buenos Aires, 1910. 



150 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [buil. 52 

ment of the same material used as a hammer, and a knife or scraper of 
jasper. All were found in a surface layer of gravelly sand capping 
the Monte Hermoso barranca, or on the broken face of the barranca 
itself. The latter were picked up on the ledges of the bluff face, where 
they had cascaded from above. The jasper knife or scraper is of a 
type familiar in the coast region as well as in Patagonia, as will be seen 
by reference to figures 26, h, and 30. 

The quartzite pieces are from water-worn or weathered material, 
such as was used for mullers, anvils, and hammers all along the coast, 
and present the usual appearance of shop refuse so familiar to north- 
ern archeologists — just such objects as may be found on numerous 
sites in the Potomac Valley and of which countless numbers may be 
seen distributed along the bluff slopes within the suburbs of Wash- 
ington. The fact that one of the larger fragments has been used as 
a chipping hammer is entirely in keeping with the writer's classifica- 
tion of these objects as the refuse of implement making carried on by 
recent tribes along the Monte Hermoso bluff. The inclusion of such 
objects in superficial deposits which are subject to rearrangement by 
the winds and by gravity is a perfectly normal and commonplace 
occurrence. That they present any unusually primitive features of 
form or workmanship or have had any significant association with 
ancient geologic formations seems to the writer altogether improb- 
able. 

Such differences as may arise between the writer's interpretations 
and those of Doctor Ameghino are probably due in large measure to 
the fact that the points of view assumed in approaching the problem 
of culture and antiquity are widely at variance. Doctor Ameghino 
takes for granted the presence in Argentine of peoples of great antiq- 
uity and of extremely primitive forms of culture and so does not 
hesitate to assign finds of objects displaying primitive characteristics 
to unidentified peoples and to great antiquity, or to assume their 
manufacture by methods supposed to characterize the dawn of the 
manual arts. To him all this is a simple and reasonable procedure. 
; The writer finds it more logical to begin with the known popula- 
tions of the region whose culture is familiar to us and which furnishes 
lithic artifacts ranging in form from the simplest fractured stone to 
the well-made and polished implement, and prefers to interpret the 
finds made, unless sufficient evidence is offered to the contrary, in 
the illuminating light of known conditions and of well-ascertained 
facts rather than to refer them to hypothetic races haled up from 
the distant past. 

EARTHENWARE 

A small number of fragments of pottery were collected by Doctor 
Hrdlicka on prehistoric sites along the margin of a lakelet near Puerto 



BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 



BULLETIN 52 PLATE 15 




0[J&$ 



-/" 



r. 







(| actual size) 
POTTERY FRAGMENTS FROM VICINITY OF PUERTO SAN BLAS 



hbdliCka] STONE INDUSTRIES OP THE ARGENTINE COAST 151 

San Bias. They represent bowls and cups of simple shape, not in any 
case exceeding 8 inches in diameter. The walls are thin, between 
one-fourth and three-eighths of an inch in thickness, and are of well- 
baked clay, gray and brown in color, and tempered with a large 
percentage of quartz sand. The surfaces inside, and out have been 
well smoothed with a polishing implement. The rims are upright, 
or curved slightly inward or outward, and rounded or squared off on 
the margin. 

Simple decorative designs have been added, in some cases encircling 
the rim, and again covering a large part of the body. These designs 
have been incised and indented with implements of varied shape, and 
display considerable taste on the part of the potter, as will be seen by 
referring to plate 15. Small fragments of similar, entirely plain ware 
were collected on the margin of Laguna de los Padres, near Mar del 
Plata, and also among the dunes and in the playas near the coast. In 
the grade of culture represented this ware corresponds closely with 
that of the stone implements ' and utensils of the same region. It 
differs but slightly in composition, color, and decoration from the 
simpler ware of the Atlantic slope in the United States. 



VII. THE SKELETAL REMAINS OF EARLY MAN IN SOUTH 

AMERICA 



By Ales HrdliCka 



The Quaternary Man 1 

In entering on the investigation of the skeletal remains relating 
to early man in South America the writer approaches a field of 
exceptional difficulties, where a clear and satisfactory report may 
not always be possible. The material for examination is widely 
scattered, it is for the most part in a very defective state, and fur- 
ther, much of it has suffered through imperfect restoration. The 
essential data concerning the most important circumstances of the 
finds will be seen in many instances to be extremely defective; the 
descriptions of the human remains run often into unnecessary minu- 
tiae on one hand and fail in the essentials; and descriptions with 
measurements by different observers show a lack of agreement. 
Under these conditions the records to be given, and of necessity also 
the comparisons, are somewhat limited. Notwithstanding this, 
however, it will be found that there runs throughout, like an unin- 
terrupted red line, evidence pointing in one direction only, which is 
that of a more simple explanation, with more moderate dating, of 
the numerous finds — thus harmonizing with the conclusions arrived 
at through the study of other material in the preceding sections of 
this work. 

THE LAGOA SANTA DISCOVERIES (BRAZIL) 

The Lagoa Santa remains are by far the earliest finds in South 
America that bear on the question of ancient man; these, which 
were discovered by P. W. Lund, a Danish explorer of note, between 
the yearsl835 and 1844, in certain caves in the district of Lagoa Santa, 
Brazil, along with the bones of fossil as well as of recent animals, con- 
sist of a large series of more or less fully mineralized human bones. 

1 Exact chronologic classification of the subject dealt with in this report is not possible. Ameghino 
regards some of the specimens reported here as Tertiary. The only criterion that could be employed in 
arranging the separate reports was the seemingly prevalent opinion as to the geologic age of the various 
remains. The sections relating to " Quaternary " man will be given in the order of the dates of discovery, 
and those which relate to "Tertiary" remains will be arranged on the basis of the reputed antiquity of the 
specimens, beginning with the most recent. 

153 



154 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

History 

The first reference to these finds occurs in a letter dated August, 

1840, written by Lund to C. C. Kafh, secretary of the Societe Royale 
des Antiquaires du Nord. 1 Lund reports the discovery, in one of the 
Lagoa Santa caves, of human bones and of one stone utensil, in con- 
nection with the bones of certain animals of extinct species. The 
human remains were in part petrified and appeared to be in the same 
state of preservation as the ancient animal bones. The forehead in 
the human skulls was very sloping, as in the figures on some of the 
ancient Mexican monuments. 

Shortly afterward, in a memoir dated at Lagoa Santa, January 30, 

1841, and published one year later, 2 Lund speaks of the same subject 
somewhat more fully. He declares that, "as to the important ques- 
tion of the contemporaneity of man and extinct animal forms in this 
part of the world, I do not believe myself authorized as yet to modify 
the negative result at which I have hitherto arrived." This view 
was maintained by Lund notwithstanding the fact that he found in 
two caves skeletal remains of man which presented all the character- 
istics of really fossil bones. In neither of these caves, however, were 
the human skeletal remains in a condition to permit a safe conclusion 
as to their geologic age; in fact, they seemed to be of more recent 
origin than the animal bones in the same caves. Lund did not feel 
himself warranted therefore in attributing to the human specimens 
special value as evidence of antiquity. 

The circumstances of the discoveries in question are narrated as 
follows : 3 

"One of the two caves in question is situated on the border of a 
lake, the waters of which invade it in the rainy season, flowing after- 
ward to the Rio das Velhas, half a league distant. In the galleries 
of the cave, dry at the time of the exploration, the ground was found 
covered by a thin layer of mellow black earth, freely mixed with the 
shells of snails of the species (Planorbis, Ampullaria) still existent in 
the lake and on its borders. In this soft earth lay bones of man, 
mammals, birds, reptiles, and fishes, distributed without order, and in 
very different states of preservation. Some could be distinguished 
from fresh bones only in that they were more fragile, lighter in weight, 
and of dark reddish-brown color; others were very heavy, hard, and 
of a brownish aspect on the surface as well as in fracture. Between 
the two extremes, however, there were many gradations." It is 
expressly noted by Lund that the human skeletal parts are included 

i Lund, P. W., Letter of Aug. 20, 1840, to C. C. Rata. Referred to in Berlingsle Tidende, Feb. 12, 1841; 
in Aarsberetning fra det Kgl. nord. OUskriftselskab for 1840, p. 5; in Neues Jahrbuch fur Mineralogie, Stutt- 
gart, 1841, pp. 502, 606; in Nouvelles Annales des Voyages, 1841, d., vi, p. 116; and published in full in Breve 
till C C. Rata, udg. af B. Grondahl, Kjobenhavn, 1880, p. 247. 

2 Lund, P. W., Blik paa Brasiliens Dyreverden, etc.; in Kgl. danske Videnskabernes Selskabs Skrifter, 
4 de Raekke, Naturv.-mathem., AfhandL, ix, Kjobenhavn, 1842, pp. 19,5-196. 

3 Liitken, Chr. Fi\, Indledende Bemaerkninger om Menneskelevninger i Brasiliens Huler og i de Lundske 
Samlinger. En Samling af Afhandlinger e Museo Lundii, I, Kjobenhavn, 1888, pp. 1-29 (with a good 
abstract in French). The quotations here given follow Liitken. 



hrdliCka] SKELETAL REMAINS OF EARLY MAN 155 

in the above statement, presenting all gradations in the conditions 
of their preservation and ranging from those that were light and fragile 
to those that were hard, heavy, and completely petrified. 

The thoroughly petrified bones of animals belonged to extinct 
species (Platyonyx, Scelidotherium, Chlamydotherium, Hydrochozrus 
sulcidens, Dasypus sulcatus, Antilope maquinensis, etc.) l 

As to the human skulls, it seemed to Lund that they indicated two 
different races, "some being smaller and relatively well-formed, and 
others larger, but of a most unfavorable (d'une forme des plus desa- 
vantageuses) form, with a forehead so sloping that it is lower than 
even that in many of the apes." 

The second cave 1 is a great subterranean labyrinth, the lower 
chambers of which become inundated in the season of rains. In the 
lowest part of one of these chambers Lund encountered a large quantity 
of bones of different animals scattered throughout the earth which 
filled the space. The bones were in the main those of deer, peccaries, 
and pacas, doubtless of species that are still living, but with them 
were teeth and bones of the Platyonyx, Chlamydotherium, Hoplo- 
phorus, Megatherium, Smilodon, and other extinct forms. The human 
remains were not found associated with these bones, but far away in 
another part of the cave and in the immediate vicinity of one of its 
entrances; these, which belonged to only one individual, were broken, 
and lay at a slight depth in the ground in a narrow space only a few 
cubic feet in capacity; but they showed characteristics of fossil bones, 
being very fragile, even friable, pure white in fracture, and strongly 
adherent to the tongue. Their position, however, seemed to indicate 
a more recent origin 2 than that of the bones of the fossil animals. 

Lund closes his communication with the statement "that he has 
said enough to show that the discoveries are not sufficient to decide 
the question of contemporaneity of man with the extinct animal 
forms, the remains of which are found in the youngest terranes of 
Brazil." 3 

In 1842 and again in 1844, Lund wrote other letters on his discov- 
eries, to the secretary of the Instituto Historico Brasileiro. 4 

1 Liitken remarks that this cave was, without doubt, the Lapa Vennelha. 

2 Liitken remarks, however, that of the ahove the antelope was shown to be the Cervus simplicicornis, a 
species still living, and that the Hydrochoerus "sulcidens" can not be separated as a variety from the H. 
capybara, although it might well be considered one of the ancient forms in which this species presented itself. 

3 "At han mener at have anf^rt nok til at vise, at de ikke ere tilstraekkelige til at tjene som afgj0rende 
Dokumenter i Sp0rgsmaalet, hvorvidt Mennesket var samtidigt eller ej med de undergaaede Dyreformer, 
hvis Levninger ere ophevarede i Brasiliens yngste Jordlag." 

* Carta escripta da Lagoa Santa (Minas Geraes), ao Sr. 1°. Secretario do Instituto, pelo socio honorario, 
Sr. Dr. Lund, in Revista trimensal de Historia e GeograpMa, iv, 1842, Rio de Janeiro, 1843, pp. 80-87; and 
Carta do Dr. Lund, escripta da Lagoa Santa (Minas Geraes) a 21 de abril de 1844; ibid., vi, 1844, pp. 334-342. 

These letters are also given in translation by Lacerda, in the Memoir es de la Societe d'A ntUropologie de Paris, 
2 me ser., n, Paris, 1875, pp. 522-535; and the earlier one is referred to in the following: Kollner Zeitung, 
Sept. 9, 1842; Amer. Jour. Sci., xxrv, New Haven, 1843, p. 277; Edinburgh New PMlos. Jour., xxxvi, 
1844, pp. 38-41; L'Institut, x, 1842, p. 356; Neues Jdhrb.fur Min., Stuttgart, 1843, p. 118; Proc.Acad. Nat. 
Sci. PMla., n, 1844-5, Phila., 1846, pp. 11-13. 

All quotations here are translations from the originals in Portuguese. 



156 BUREAU OP AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [boll. 52 

These two communications repeat in the main what has already- 
been cited, but there are also several additional statements. 

In the earlier letter Lund states that notwithstanding the excellent 
opportunities he had to examine into the question of the contempo- 
raneity of man in Brazil with the extinct species of mammals, he had 
not yet arrived at a definite conclusion, although he had made every 
effort to do so. He had explored up to that time nearly 200 caves 
and the number of mammal species alone which were found amounted 
to 115, of which only 88 are still living in the region. 

The bad condition in which most of the cave bones of animals were 
found and the nature of the mutilations they showed convinced Lund 
that in the majority of cases their presence was due to savage beasts, 
which had the habit of bringing their victims or parts of them to 
their dens in the caves where the flesh was devoured. 

"But," Lund continues, "among so large a quantity of bones, 
which indicate the existence of an order of things altogether different 
from that which exists to-day, I have never encountered the slightest 
traces of man. Yet, at an epoch when ferocious animals, among 
which some gigantic forms (e. g., Smilodon populator) abounded in 
this country, why should man, who is so feeble in contest with such 
formidable animals, have escaped the fate which overtook numerous 
victims many times stronger than himself?" This consideration, he 
was led to believe, settled negatively the question of man's contempo- 
raneity with these animals, when, after six years of fruitless search, he 
discovered cave remains of human beings "which may possibly lead 
to a contrary solution of the question." 

"I found these human remains, " he says, "in a cave mixed with the 
bones of various animals of species entirely extinct (Platyonyx Buck- 
landii, Clilamydotherium Humboldtii, C. majus, Dasypus sulcatus, Hy- 
drochserus sulcidens, etc.), a circumstance sufficient to call attention 
in the highest degree to the interesting relics. Moreover, they pre- 
sented all the physical characteristics of fossil bones. They were in 
part petrified, in part impregnated with ferruginous particles, which 
gave to some of them a metallic luster, akin to that of bronze, as well 
as extraordinary weight. There could then be no doubt as to their 
great age. But in view of the fact that the cave that contained the 
bones lay at the border of a lake, the water of which entered it annually 
during the rainy season, no definite conclusion can be reached as to 
whether the individuals to whom they belonged were or were not 
contemporaneous with the extinct species of animals with which 
their bones occurred. In consequence of this circumstance, successive 
introductions of animal remains into the cavern could have taken 
place and the bones of later introduction could have become mixed 
with those already deposited. This, it was demonstrated, had 
actually taken place, for among the bones of the extinct species were 



hbdliOka] SKELETAL REMAINS OF EARLY MAN 157 

encountered others of animals whose species are still living. These 
letter showed unequal states of preservation, according to their age, 
some of them hardly differing from fresh bones, while others approxi- 
mated the submetallic state previously referred to; the majority, 
however, showed alterations intermediate between these two ex- 
tremes. A similar difference, but less considerable, was also noted 
in the human bones, proving undeniably the inequalities in their ages; 
but all presented sufficient alteration in composition or texture to 
indicate a considerable antiquity, so that, should they lose the right 
to serve as evidence of the coexistence of man with the great 
extinct species of terrestrial mammals, they would still retain suffi- 
cient interest from the latter point of view. . . . 

"The researches of the European naturalists have demonstrated 
that none of the great species of terrestrial mammals whose bones are 
found in true fossil state have lived in historic times and that conse- 
quently the date of their extinction is further back than 3,000 years. 
Applying these results to the extinct species of Brazil, the bones of 
which present the same state of preservation as those of the extinct 
forms in Europe, and attributing to those human bones, which are 
found in an analogous state of conservation, corresponding antiquity, 
we obtain for these human remains an age of 30 centuries and more. 
As, however, the process of petrifaction is one of those that has been 
least studied, principally in relation to the time required for its con- 
summation, and as, on the other hand, that time varies according to 
more or less favorable circumstances, we can not risk on this basis 
any more than vague approximations. Be it as it may, there will 
always remain for these human bones a very considerable antiquity, 
which places them far back of the epoch of discovery of this part 
of the world, as well as beyond all the direct documents which we 
possess on the existence of man, considering that thus far there have 
been found in no other part of the world human bones in a state of 
petrifaction. 

"It is then proved by these evidences, in the first place, that the 
population of Brazil is derived from very remote times and undoubt- 
edly anterior to the historic period. 

' ' Naturally the question then presents itself, Who were these most 
ancient inhabitants of Brazil ? Of what race were they ? What was 
their mode of life and their intellectual status ? 

"Fortunately the answers to these questions are less difficult and 
less uncertain than those relating to the antiquity of the bones. 
Having found a number of more or less complete skulls, I can fix the 
place which the individuals to whom they belonged should occupy 
in anthropology. The sloping forehead, the prominence of the zygo- 
matic bones, the facial angle, the form of the jaws and orbits, all 
assign these skulls a place among the most characteristic of the 



158 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bum,. 52 

American race ... In regard to the low forehead, these ancient 
crania show not merely a conformity with those of the American 
race, but some of them exhibit this feature in an excessive degree, 
extending to a complete disappearance of the forehead. 

"It is then proved, in the second place, that the people, who in 
that remote time inhabited this part of the new world, were of the 
same race as those who occupied this country at the time of the 
Conquest." 

In the following paragraph Lund expresses the opinion that this 
lowness of the forehead is a natural feature, not due to artificial 
deformation, and that it offers an explanation of the figures with 
similar low foreheads sculptured on some ancient American monu- 
ments. He then proceeds: 

' ' The bones of the skeletons belonged to individuals of both sexes ; 
they were of ordinary size; nevertheless two among those of the 
males presented dimensions above the ordinary." 

In conclusion, Lund expresses a rather poor opinion of the prob- 
able mental characteristics of the people from whom the remains 
came; this conclusion, he says, is "corroborated by an instrument of 
the most imperfect construction found with the bones. This instru- 
ment consists simply of a hemispheric stone of amphibole, 10 inches 
in circumference and smooth on the plane surface, which evidently 
served for crushing seeds or other hard substances." 

Besides the bones spoken of above, Lund mentions the finds of 
some human osseous remains, ' ' whose characteristics were also those 
of fossil bones," in two other of the Minas Geraes caves. "The bones 
were deprived of nearly all the gelatinous parts, and in consequence 
were very friable and white in fracture. Unfortunately, they were 
found isolated and without being accompanied by the bones of other 
animals, so that the principal question raised by these finds, that of 
man's antiquity, remains undecided; nevertheless, the specimens 
corroborate the conclusions relative to the prolonged existence of 
man in this part of the world." 

The main parts of the above letter were published in Philadelphia 
in 1845 and were quoted more or less extensively during the early 
forties, in other publications. 1 

The subsequent letter of Lund to the Institute (1844) contains less 
information than the one cited above, but there are several points of 
some importance. The first concerns the mineralization of the various 
bones. Lund's words in regard to this point are: 

"The advanced decomposition of the [animal] bones contained in 
this deposit [evidently referring to the cave of Sumidouro] showed 

i Strain, Isaac G., Extract of a letter giving the synopsis of the translation, by himself, of a letter from 
Doctor Lund, R. S. A., Copenhagen, to the Historical and Geographical Society of Brazil; in Proc. Acad. 
Nat. Sci. PMla., n, 1844-5, Phila., 1846, pp. 11-13. 



hrdliCka] SKELETAL REMAINS OF EARLY MAN 159 

plainly that they were very ancient. Laid on glowing coals, they 
exhale no empyreumatic odor; they adhere strongly to the tongue, 
treated with dilute nitric acid, they dissolve completely and rapidly 
with a violent effervescence. They are therefore wholly calcareous, 
that is in part petrified, offering thus all the characteristics of true 
fossil bones." 

Having expressed himself on this part of the question, Lund pro- 
ceeds to the examination of the bones from the zoologic standpoint, 
with the result that some of them are found to belong to species still 
living, while others belonged to animals which have already ceased 
to exist in that locality. Among the latter specimens were some 
bones of the llama, but great surprise was occasioned by the pres- 
ence also of some bones of a horse. These did not belong to either 
of the two species of fossil horses known in the country, but " indi- 
cated a different species, so nearly similar to the domestic horse 
that no characteristics could be found in the fragments to distinguish 
them therefrom, though their proportions were notably superior to 
those of the races of the horse introduced into South America by 
the conquerors. 

"In view of the facts to which I have here referred, there can then 
remain no doubt as to the existence of man on this continent in an 
epoch anterior to that in which the last races of the gigantic animals 
whose remains abound in the caves of this country became extinct, 
or, in other terms, as to his existence here anterior to the historic 
period. [ X J 

"As to the ethnographic peculiarities of the skulls from this 
deposit, I had occasion to confirm my former conclusions, namely, 
that they offer all the characteristic features of the American race ; 
and I have also firmly convinced myself that the extraordinary 
depression of the forehead which is observed in some of the individ- 
uals, is not artificial. 

"We see thus that America was already peopled before the first 
rays of history appeared on the horizon of the Old World, and that the 
people who inhabited it in those remote times were of the same race 
as that found here at the time of discovery." 

In the subsequent paragraphs of his letter, Lund indulges in some 
speculations and gives interpretations of certain features consequent 
on the wearing down in the human skulls of the front teeth; these 
views are, however, in the light of present knowledge on the sub- 
jects, plainly erroneous. 

The final, and in some respects the most important, communication 
of Lund on the subject of the Lagoa Santa human remains is con- 
tained in a long letter addressed by him, in March, 1844, to C. C. 



i By this Lund doubtless means the historic period of mankind in general as then known.— A. H. 



160 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

Rafn, secretary of the Societe Royale des Antiquaires du Nord. 1 
The principal parts of this communication, which because of the 
relative inaccessibility of the originals, need to be given somewhat 
in extenso, are as follows: 

"The limestone caves of Brazil, which are so rich in bones of 
animals, yield only very limited traces of the skeletal remains of man. 
My efforts to find the latter were for a number of years fruitless, a 
fact which strengthened more and more my belief in the generally 
accepted view that man was late in appearing in this part of the world. 
The researches of the last few years, however, have brought other 
results. Of more than 800 caves which I have examined, six at last 
yielded human bones, the majority of which, judging by their aspect, 
belong to very remote times; but the circumstances under which 
they were found did not afford at first any adequate criteria for the 
exact determination of their age. 

"Usually the human bones were not associated with bones of 
animals which could shed any light on this point, but a single cave 
presented at last an exception. In this were found besides the human 
remains the bones of divers animals belonging to species both existing 
and extinct. Notwithstanding this, geologic criteria necessary for 
the determination of the relative age of these vestiges are unfor- 
tunately wanting, because the remains discovered were not found 
in their original positions. 

"The cave in question is situated on the border of a lake, the waters of 
which invade it during the rainy season, a circumstance which explains 
how bones of different ages could have become accumulated within 
it without order. However, of all the caves which I have examined 
up to the present time, this was the only one that encouraged me to 
anticipate the possibility of finding the solution of a question of such 
importance as that of the age of the human genus on this continent. 
In consequence, I did not fail to profit by the opportunity afforded 
by the dryness of the previous year and submitted the cave to new 
explorations. These researches, although they have not yielded 
results capable of solving the problem of man's antiquity in a definite 
manner, nevertheless throw important light on several other points 
relating to that subject. . . . 

"The cave is situated in limestone rock, which rises vertically on 
the southern border of a lake known as the Lagoa do Sumidouro. 
The lake, large during the rains, becomes entirely empty during the 
dry season. It is drained by means of several small crevices, named 

i An extract from this letter was published in the Antikvarisk Tidsskrift, Kjobenhavn, 1843-45, and a 
French translation of the larger part of it appears in "Notice sur des ossements humains fossiles, trouvfis 
dans une caverne du Br6sil," in Mbmoires des Antiquaires du Nord, 1845-49, Copanhague (n. d.), pp. 49-77. 
The substance of the letter is given also by Liitken, op. cit. (see footnote 3, p. 154, herein), pp. 21-23, and 
references to it are found in his resumg; inCB.de I'Acad. Sci., xx, Paris, 1845, p. 1368; in L'Institut, xm, 
1845, p. 166; and in Froriep's Neue Notizen, xxxv, 1845, p. 16. 



hrdliCka] SKELETAL, REMAINS OP EARLY MAN 161 

sangradores, which exist in the base of the limestone rock and lead to 
subterranean canals, by which the lake communicates with the Rio 
das Velhas, about half a league distant. . . . 

"The highest of the above crevices opens into the cave, but the 
principal opening by which one reaches the latter is situated farther 
to the west, in a small wooded area, at an elevation slightly above the 
highest level of the lake. Descent is possible by two low passages 
a short distance apart, over large fallen stones, which obstruct the 
way to the cave. 

"The cavern is spacious and comprises several large chambers and 
passages communicating with one another. The floor, which is 
everywhere strewn with large fallen rocks, slopes toward the middle, 
where there is a pool of water. Over the floor is a thick covering of 
mellow blackish earth, which dried in the air assumes a lighter grayish 
color, and contains numerous fresh shells belonging to a species of 
small fresh water snail living in the lake outside. This carpet of 
soft earth is a deposit left by the latest inundations. ..." 

"A quantity of recent bones of small animals derived from a more 
ancient layer were found on and also in this soft earth. The original 
bed of these bones appears in the upper part of the cave. It consists 
of clay, different in quality and color, which fills the space between 
the large blocks of stone and continues deeper down. Toward its 
lower limit this clay is grayish and partly soft, partly more or less 
hardened by calcareous particles or by the shells of snails, which are 
mixed with it in great numbers. In measure at which this layer 
of clay becomes more distant from the center of the cave and conse- 
quently from the influence of the inundations, the gray color of the 
deposit passes insensibly from yellowish to dark brownish red, 
varied with some dark patches; these disappear farther on, and at 
last there is only clay of the color of a dark tile, similar to the original 
deposit which fills the spaces among the stones in the majority of the 
Minas Geraes caves. The quantity of the snail shells diminishes as 
the gray clay assumes more and more the red color. 

"Many bones were exhumed from the different masses of this 
clay; and nearly as large a quantity of them was also found in the 
bottom deposit of the pool in the center of the cave. . . . 

"This pool was entirely emptied, and many precious remains of 
animals were recovered from the spot. The bones found there 
resembled altogether those contained in the layer of the black earth, 
with the differences only that the effects of water were here more 
distinct. They were of a brown, red, or black color on the surface 
as well as inters titially; the majority of them were petrified and 
through being continually washed, their surface had a metallic polish. 
On account of this quality and their metallic sound when struck, 
21535°— Bull. 52—12 11 



162 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

they could have been taken for copies of bones in metal rather than 
for veritable bones themselves. 

"The different classes of animals to which the bones found in the 
cave belong, are as follows: 

" Man. — The human bones belonged to at least 30 individuals of 
different ages, from the newborn to the decrepit aged. They were 
for the most part broken, but the quality of the fractured surfaces 
indicates, in the majority of cases, that the injury took place after 
the bone had become fragile through advanced state of decomposi- 
tion. . . . The massive blocks of stone, among which a large 
part of these bones were scattered, are sufficient witnesses of the 
great changes which the cave has suffered since the bones were 
introduced. 

"The human bones were found scattered pellmell, without any 
order; some of them, nevertheless, formed an exception to the rule, 
presenting still their natural relations with the adjacent bones, 
which seems to indicate that they were originally deposited in the 
cave with their adhering soft parts. However, the large accumula- 
tions of human bones winch were found at some points proved that 
these were removed from their original position and that they had 
been carried by water to the spots where encountered. The majority 
of the skulls were also heaped separately, while another pile was 
formed of small bones, as those of the fingers, toes, and the con- 
stituents of the carpus and tarsus. 

' 'A number of small human bones appeared also in the uppermost 
portions of the black earth; these were distinguished by a reddish- 
brown color, which penetrated the bone more or less and was some- 
times communicated to the entire specimen. They were entirely 
calcareous and more or less petrified, the measure of their red color 
corresponding to these changes. There were only a few human 
bones in the sediment of the pool. The largest number was found 
in the gray or yellowish clay, in its softer as well as indurated parts. 
Some of them existed also in the yellowish clay with blackish patches. 
In the indurated clay, they formed part of a sort of bony breccia of 
great hardness similar to that in winch appears here the oldest debris 
of mammals of extinct species. 

"The human remains had all the characteristics of fossil bones: 
the interior was of pure white ; the surface was stained black by fer- 
ruginous substances. In those that had been broken there was as 
much of this black stain in the interior as on the exterior. They 
adhered strongly to the tongue ; exposed to fire or laid on hot coals, 
they did not turn black and gave no odor; in dilute nitric acid they 
dissolved completely in a few minutes, with strong ebullition. They 
were in part petrified." 

Mammals. — Among these remains was a piece of the femur of a 
species of extinct monkey. There were also a great quantity of 



hrdliCka] SKELETAL REMAINS OF EARLY MAN 163 

bones of bats of varieties which still inhabit the cave, and those of 
many existing species of rodents. The bones of a number of indi- 
viduals of a species of large extinct rodent, Hydrochserus sulcidens, 
were mingled irregularly with the human bones in the yellowish 
earth with blackish discolorations. The earth covering of the floor 
of the cave and the bottom of the pool also contained a quantity of 
the same. 

There were bones of some species of Didelpliis, which were nearly 
always found in the cave deposits, and those of carnivores, including 
the great fossil jaguar (Felis protopanther) , belonging to a species 
that is extinct, or at least does not now exist in Brazil. The remains 
of this jaguar were found beside the human bones in the yellowish 
clay with black discolorations, and also in the floor covering of the 
cave and at the bottom of the pool. The bones in the first-mentioned 
deposit were of similar aspect externally to the human bones. Among 
the petrified bones of the pool and of the mold covering the floor of 
the cave were also those of a puma and an ocelot, identical with 
those of animals of these species still in existence. 

The most interesting of the canine bones belonged to Canis jubatus, 
the existing wolf of Brazil. While the bones of the puma and the 
ocelot have been found occasionally in ancient layers of soil and in 
bone breccia, this is not true of the osseous remains of this wolf. 
The bones of this animal "were found mixed pellmell with those of 
man in the yellowish earth with black discolorations, and the stain- 
ing was the same in the two species. The earth covering the floor 
and that forming the bottom of the pool contained also some debris 
of the troglodyte wolf (extinct), side by side with the bones of a small 
chacal similar to the one which still exists in the country." The 
bones of a species of otter, similar to the living Lutra hrasiliensis, end 
the list. 

The pachyderms were represented by peccaries of two living 
species. "Their bones were everywhere mingled with the human 
skeletal remains, but especially so in the yellowish earth with black 
discolorations." There were also traces of an extinct larger species 
of peccary and of tapir. 

Besides the above, Lund found in the same cave, as reported in his 
earlier letter, the bones of a horse, differing from those of the two 
fossil species of this animal which existed in Brazil, but exhibiting 
"great conformity with the existing domesticated horse." However, 
these bones came from a stronger, taller animal than the ordinary horse 
of Brazil. They lay in the yellow as well as in the more reddish clay 
with blackish discolorations, and their state of decomposition was 
similar to that of the bones which surrounded them. They were cal- 
careous, and in part petrified. Lund says: "This last circumstance 
creates a new and unexpected difficulty, the solution of which may 
one day lead to important results. No one could pretend that the 



164 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

exhumed bones of this animal belonged to individuals descended 
from the horse introduced by the Portuguese scarcely 100 years ago. 
The relations under which these bones were found, with their state 
of decomposition, prove incontestably a more remote age." 

Ruminants were represented by four species, of which three, 
those of deer, conformed with the living species. The remains of 
two of these were found in the red clay and also in its more recent 
modifications. They were found also, apparently removed from 
their original bed, in the pool and in the earth which carpeted the 
cave. The third species, which does not appear at present in the 
country, existed in the clay and also in the pool as well as in the floor 
deposits. The fourth species was the llama, not now known in Bra- 
zil. Its bones lay in the two most ancient modifications of the clay. 

In addition to the above there were bones of several species still 
living and some already extinct, of armadillos and other edentates, and 
of numerous birds, reptiles, and fishes. Some of these bones were 
still in a relatively fresh state, while others, of both living and extinct 
species, were more or less petrified. The bones of the edentates were 
encountered in the modified clay, as well as in the earth at the bottom 
of the pool and on the floor of the cave. The remains of the birds, 
reptiles, and fishes existed only in the two deposits last-mentioned. 

In subsequent parts of his letter Lund considers the agency of 
water in producing the conditions found in the cave, and the various 
possible modes of introducing the animal remains into the cavern. 
He then returns again to the human bones, with the following notes: 

"I have already remarked that the skeletal remains of man winch 
were found in the cave belonged to individuals ranging in age from 
the unborn to those of decrepit old age. The proportion of the latter 
was very considerable. There were a number of lower j aws winch were 
not only without the teeth, but winch presented such an absorption 
of the bone that they resembled a bone lamina of only a few lines in 
thickness. It is therefore probable that these skeletons belonged to 
decrepit individuals who had died of old age and were thrown into 
this cave, which thus appears to have served as a place of sepulture. 
A similar explanation is applicable to the young individuals, whose 
mortality as well known is greatest during the early years. 
A peculiarity which I discovered in some of the skulls warrants me, it 
seems, in believing that the death of several of the individuals buried 
in this cave did not result from natural causes. In several of the skulls 
I discovered a hole in one of the temples, of a regular oblong form, the 
long axis of which was parallel with the long axis of the head. This 
hole was found to be of the same size and same form in all the skulls. 
. . . It seems to me most likely that this hole in the temple is the 
result of external violence which caused the death of the individual. 
It should still further be remarked that the outline and size of the 



hrdliCka] SKELETAL REMAINS OF EARLY MAN 165 

puncture correspond quite closely to those of the pointed end of the 
stone axes, specimens of which are so often found in the excavations 
of antiquities, a fact which leads to the belief that they were produced 
by such an instrument. . . . 

"If we consider these remains of man from the standpoint of the 
ethnographic traits which they present, we shall see that all the skulls 
bear the distinctive features of the American race. . . . 

"The examination to which I have submitted the contents of the 
cave has thus led me to the following conclusions : 

'■1. The occupation of South America by man extends not only 
beyond the epoch of the discovery of this part of the world, but far 
back into historic times [i. e. historic time in general], and probably 
even beyond these into geologic times. A number of species of 
animals seem to have disappeared from the ranks of the creation 
since the appearance of man in this hemisphere. 

"2. The race which 'occupied this part of the world in remote 
antiquity was in its general type the same as that which inhabited 
the country at the time of the discovery by the Europeans." 

The above completes the original data concerning the Lagoa 
Santa cave discoveries. 

Reports on Lund's Collections 

Most of Lund's collections passed to the Zoological Museum of the 
University of Copenhagen; one of the Sumidouro cave skulls, how- 
ever, was donated by him to the Historical and Geographical Institute 
of Brazil, in whose possession it remains to this day; 1 and a series of 
specimens, including the number of more or less mineralized human 
bones, was acquired by the British Museum. 

The last-named collection was briefly reported on in 1864 as follows 
by Blake: 2 

"In the British Museum there exist some human remains pur- 
chased with the Claussen collection, and forming part of the series of 
specimens which were discovered by Lund and Claussen in their 
investigations in Eastern Brazil. 

"Mr. W. Davies having kindly drawn my attention to them, I will 
give a short list of the specimens, without wishing to draw any further 
conclusions than that they probably belong to a period of great his- 
torical antiquity, although probably not coeval with the fossil fauna 
which Lund has described in the Transactions of various northern 
academies. 

"1. Skull of young child. This skull is brachycephalic and asym- 
metrical, the right side being shorter than the left. There are evi- 

i It was seen by the writer; it could be examined, however, only through the glass doors of a closet, the 
key of which had been lost. 

2 Blake, C. C, On Human Remains from a Bone Cave in Brazil; in Jour. Anthr. Soc. London, n, 1864, 
pp. cclxv-cclxvtt. 



166 BTJEEATJ OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

dent traces of 'parie to-occipital' flattening, which has extended above 
thelambdoid and for a well-defined space on either side of the sagittal 
suture. None of the sutures are complex. Flattening on the left 
side of the frontal bone is manifest, indicating the direction in winch 
the compressing force has been exercised throughout life. No other 
abnormal development is visible. The molar and premolar teeth in 
place, show little signs of erosion. The basioccipito-sphenoid suture 
having been present, the basioccipital bone has been broken away, 
as well as the right border of the foramen magnum and the right 
squamosal bone. The maxilla is slightly prognathic. The skull 
presents the most similarity to the skulls from Canete, in Peru, 
described by Castelnau, and to some which I have seen from the 
uplands of the Argentine provinces, near Rosario. 

"2. Broken maxillary (adult?) left side. The first premolar, as 
well as the broken fragment of the second premolar, are the only 
teeth which remain. Slight erosion is visible on the crown of the 
first tooth. 

"3. Lower mandible, left ramus. Thickly incrusted with limonite 
and sand, which has filled up the alveoli. Only the first and second 
molars are in place, the second being turned out of its proper inser- 
tion, as well as the first being much worn. Both the molar teeth in 
place are much worn on the outer side of the teeth. All the other 
teeth, with the exception of the first premolar, are absent. No 
marked outward or inward inflection of the angle is present. 

"4. Lower mandible, left ramus. This specimen exhibits the 
same general characters as No. 3, with the exception that the incrus- 
tation of limonite is not present. On the inner sides of m. 3 and m. 2, 
the upper angles of the cusps have been broken away, the whole sur- 
face of the teeth being much worn. M. 1 is much worn, and a small 
fracture of the alveolar process outside it has permitted that [sic] 
the two outer fangs to be elevated and dislocated from their own 
proper insertions and to form by this dislocation a grinding surface. 
The first and second premolars, as well as the canine and first incisor, 
are also much worn. The mental process of the jaw is high; the genial 
tubercles distinct; and the mental foramen, not as in No. 3, filled up 
with limonite. The coronoid process is high; and, although the 
angle is broken away, enough remains to lead us to conjecture that 
it was strong and powerful. 

"5. Portions of parietal bones of average thickness, incrusted with 
ochreous mud. 

"6. Upper part of supraoccipital bone, and lower and posterior 
portions of two parietals, exhibiting the confluence of the sagittal and 
lambdoid sutures. The supraoccipital bone is slightly elevated above 
the level of the lambdoid suture, which, as well as the sagittal, is very 
complex. There are no traces of wormian ossifications and on the 
inner side of the bone the sutures are perfectly closed. 



hrdliCka] SKELETAL REMAINS OP EAELY MAN 167 

"7. Broken glabella and fragments of nasals, as well as a piece of 
the supraciliary arch of a young individual ; frontal sinuses small. 

"8. Distal portion and shaft of humerus, gnawn by mice and by 
some larger rodent; thickly permeated by limonite. 

"9. Distal portion and shaft of humerus; young or small individ- 
ual; no marks of teeth. 

" 10. Proximal end of tibia, very young individual, wanting 
epiphyses; slightly gnawn by rodents. 

"11. Shaft of femur; much gnawn by rodents. 

"12. Proximal end of femur, including head and neck, and part 
of shaft, of young individual; gnawn by mice (Hesperomys). 

"13. Distal end of femur, exhibiting frequent marks of the teeth 
of some rodent, probably one of the small mice (Hesjieromys) of the 
caves, slightly infiltrated with ocherous mud, and with much of the 
animal matter absent. 

"14. Tibia, long fragment of shaft; few traces of rodent action. 

"The following three specimens are in the same condition as the 
fragments of the lower jaw, No. 3, above alluded to. 

"15. Long bone (small humerus?) imbedded in limonite, which 
contains many fragments of fossil shells, exceedingly difficult of iden- 
tification. A specimen of Planorbis (of which fresh- water type four 
existing species in Brazil are recorded by Mr. S. P. Woodward in 
bis Manual of Mollusca) is recognisable, as well as the broken frag- 
ments of an elongated land-snail, probably Bulimus. 

" 16. Sections of three long bones, covered with sandy deposit 
containing large quantities of oxide of iron (limonite); the medul- 
lary cavity of the bones being filled with crystals of carbonate of 
lime. 

"17. Distal end of femur, thickly incrusted with limonite, the 
animal matter being absent. 

"18. Head of humerus, covered with limonite." 

The next mention of the Lund specimens, referring to the main 
part of the collection at Copenhagen, occurs in the memoir of Rein- 
hardt, 1 who occupied himself for years with the study of the animal 
bones collected by Lund in the Brazilian caves. In this memoir are 
mentioned also the human remains from the cave of Sumidouro. 
Reinhardt recognized that the disturbance of the primitive deposits 
in the cave necessitated great care in the drawing of conclusions from 
the find, nevertheless he says that the human bones resembled so 
exactly in their state of preservation those of extinct animals, that 
one can not doubt that they were introduced into the cave at about 
the same epoch as the latter. Reinhardt believed also that he could 
characterize the tribe from which the human remains proceeded as 
one of "quite tall stature, but somewhat delicate, dolichocephalic, 

1 Reinhardt, J., De brasilianske Knoglehuler og de i dem forekommende Dyrelevninger. En Samling 
0/ Afhandlinger e Museo Lundii, I, Kjobenhavn, 1888, pp. 1-5C. [Memoir read in 1866.] 



168 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

and prognathic; with the summit of the skull elevated, nearly py- 
ramidal, cheek bones prominent; with the front narrow, but not 
exceptionally depressed; with the interorbital space very large and 
the walls of the skull very thick (up to 1 cm.)- In none of the skulls 
is seen any trace of an artificial deformation produced by pressure." 

In 1876 the Sumidouro skull deposited in Eio de Janeiro was 
described by Lacerda and Peixoto. 1 The brief report- reads as 
follows : 

"Fossil skull of Lagoa Santa, No. 7. — It is a relatively small skull 
encountered with others in one of the caves of Lagoa Santa, where 
existed also fossil bones of animals of species already extinct. Exter- 
nally it presents a metallic, bronzelike aspect; on fracture, there is 
clearly visible a calcareous alteration of the bone. Its weight is 
notable, as compared with that of other skulls which we have 
described. The zygomatic arches are broken in their middle part 
and the styloids are destroyed. In the right temporal region is seen 
a perforation, nearly elliptical in form, involving the squama of the 
temporal bone and measuring 4.8 cm. in length by 2 cm. in greatest 
breadth. The superior border of this defect reaches the beveled 
edge of the parietal, which is intact. The aspect of the borders of 
the opening, which are similar in nature and polish to the other 
unfractured parts of the skull, leads to the conclusion that this defect 
is not posthumous, such as appears to be true of the fractures of the 
zygomatic arches, which present an entirely different aspect. The 
form of this lesion, its extension, and the characteristics of its bor- 
ders, lead us to believe that it was produced during life, by a cutting 
instrument. Considering the relations existing between the affected 
region and the brain, the wound must have resulted in the death of 
the individual. The skull is without the lower jaw. . . . The front 
is low and inclined backward as in nearly all of the skulls of the 
American race; the glabella is salient, the superciliary arches very 
prominent, the occiput flattened to nearly vertical; the external 
occipital protuberance is broad, plain, and very protruding. The 
plane of the occipital foramen prolonged forward would pass through 
a horizontal fine drawn from one orbit to the other. The malar 
bones are prominent . . . the orbits quadrangular, the parieties of 
the skull vertical, the mastoid processes of small size, the parietal 
eminences prominent. Nearly all the sutures are consolidated, and 
their serration is for the most part simple except in the posterior" 
portion of the sagittal, where it is complicated. There are vestiges 
of two Wormian bones in the lambdoid suture. In the upper jaw 
exist 14 dental alveoli, more or less damaged; of the teeth, there 
remains only the second left molar. . . . The anterior nasal aper- 

1 Lacerda, Filho, e Rodrigues Peixoto, Contribuicoes para o estudo anthropologic© das racas indigenas 
do Brazil; in Archivos do Museu National do Rio de Janeiro, i, 1876, pp. 63-65, pi. rv. 



hrdlicka] SKELETAL REMAINS OF EARLY MAN 169 

ture is heart-shaped, very irregular. The canine fossae are but little 

excavated; the occipital foramen presents oval form The 

cephalic index of the skull is 69.72; its capacity 1,388 cc; its facial 
angle (Cloquet's) 67°." 
Principal measurements: 

en i. 

Diameter anteroposterior 18. 5 

Diameter transverse maximum 12. 9 

Diameter vertical 14. 5 

Arc, nasion to bregma 13. 

Arc, bregma to lambda 14. 

Arc, lambda to opisthion 12. 

Arc, from one auditory opening to the other 31. 

Basion-nasion diameter 9.3 

Diameter frontal maximum . 10. 7 

Diameter frontal minimum 9.2 

Circumference, horizontal 51. 5 

Diameter bizygomatic 13. 

Orbital interval 2.2 

Transverse diameter of the orbit 4.1 

Vertical diameter of the orbit 3.3 

Depth of the orbit 5. 

Distance from nasal suture to nasal spine 4.5 

Breadth of the nasal aperture 2.4 

The principal conclusion concerning the specimen under considera- 
tion is (pp. 72-73) that "the fossil cranium of Lagoa Santa, one of 
the precious objects of our collection, approaches in its character- 
tics very much the crania of the Botocudos." * 

In 1879 Quatrefages made the Lagoa Santa remains the occasion 
of an extended report before the anthropologic meeting at Moscow. 2 

From the letters of Lund and the descriptions of the Rio de Janeiro 
skull by Lacerda and Peixoto, Quatrefages arrives, after a prolonged 
discussion of the case, but altogether too prematurely, it seems, at the 
following far-fetched conclusions: 

"1. In Brazil, as in Europe, man lived contemporaneously with 
divers species of mammals which are absent from the-present geologic 
epoch. 

"2. The fossil man of Brazil discovered by Lund in the caves of 
Lagoa Santa existed certainly at the epoch of the reindeer; but, 
according to the opinion of M. Gaudry, he may not have existed at 
the epoch of the mammoth. 

1 During his visit at Rio de Janeiro the writer was able to see the skull in question, which is still preserved 
at the Instituto de Historia y Geografia in that city. Unfortunately the key of the closet in which the 
specimen is kept had been lost, so that the specimen could be inspected only through the glass. It was 
found that Lacerda's illustrations of the specimen were quite accurate. The skull is that of an adult, sex 
somewhat doubtful — either a male with submedium supraorbital ridges and moderate mastoids, or a female 
with these parts above average. No primitive characteristics. Orbits small, not sharp, relatively rather 
high, but not abnormally so, mesorhiny, small prognathism; upper alveolar process low, not strong. Vault 
moderate in size, apparently not deformed, dolichocephalic. Supraorbital ridges moderate; do not form 
complete arch. Color dark-brownish; specimen looks as if it had been treated with some preservative. 

* Quatrefages, A. de, L'homme fossile de Lagoa-Santa (Bresil) et ses descendants actuels; in Izviestia 
imper. ooslwhestva Ijvhitelei estestvoznania, etc., m, Moskva, 1880, pp. 321-338. Also in C. R. V Acad. Sci., 
xcm, Paris, 1881, p. 882. 



170 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

"3. The fossil man of Lagoa Santa is distinguished from the fossil 
man of Europe by a number of characters, the most important of 
which is the coexistence of dolichocephaly and hypsistenocephaly. 

"4. In Brazil, as in Europe, fossil man left his descendants who 
have contributed to the formation of the present populations. 

"5. Lacerda and Peixoto have with reason regarded the race of 
Botocudos as a result of a mixture of the fossil type of Lagoa Santa 
with other ethnologic elements. 

"6. The number and the nature of these elements remain to be 
determined, but one at least was br achy cephalic. 

"7. The fossil type of Lagoa Santa enters also in part into the 
composition of the Ando-Peruvian populations and is found again 
more or less pronounced in the littoral of the Pacific. 

"8. In Peru and in Bolivia the ethnic element of Lagoa Santa 
manifests its presence quite as clearly as in Brazil. Nevertheless, 

(9) "it appears to have exercised a less general influence in Peru 
than in Brazil. 

"10. The same ethnic element is found, according to all indica- 
tions, elsewhere [in America] than in Brazil and Peru." 

At about this time or a little later, a new communication by 
Lacerda, 1 on the subject of the Lagoa Santa man, appeared. 

No new facts concerning the finds are given, but the author speaks 
of skulls having forms related to those of the Lagoa Santa caves 
from different parts of Brazil, and especially from the shell-heaps: 
"There are in the Museum of Rio a dozen skulls found by Hartt 
and his assistants in the sambaguis of the Provinces Parana and 
Santa Catharina. Nearly all these have a sloping forehead; there 
are even some in which the front is very sloping. The bones of the 
vault are of a very considerable thickness. They are all provided 
with large lower jaws and with prominent and voluminous cheek 
bones. They are all dolichocephalic and more or less prognathic." 2 

Wear of the teeth, such as seen by Lund in the Sumidouro cave 
crania and considered by him as of special significance, was found 
equally in the sambaqui and other modern skulls. 

An interesting section of the paper deals with "metallization" of 
bones. Speaking of the metallic impregnation of the Lagoa Santa 
specimens, Lacerda asks: "What space of time is necessary that 
this metallic impregnation should become complete? And has it 
need of special conditions of the environment to bring it about ? 

"It is not easy," he follows, "to give to-day an answer to these 
questions. What remains beyond doubt is that such a metallization 

i Lacerda, A. de, Documents pour servir a l'histoire de l'honune fossile du Bresil; in Mim. Soc. d'Anthr. 
Paris, 2 me ser., n, 1875, pp. 517-542. 

2 Lacerda mentions also the skull (portion) of Ceara, described by Lacerda and Peixoto in the Arcliivos 
do Museu National do Rio de Janeiro, I, 1876, p. 67. The original, a piece of the vault, was examined by 
the writer; it is quite an ordinary piece, with a somewhat sloping forehead, which was badly posed and 
pictured. It can have no claim to be considered in connection with antiquity. 



HRDli£ka] SKELETAL REMAINS OP EARLY MAN lYl 

of bones bears relation to the presence of metallic substances in the 
terrane or deposit in which the skulls are found. However, whatever 
may be the time necessary for this metallic impregnation to become 
complete, it is impossible to attribute on this basis any very great 
antiquity to the bones. In fact, it is scarcely two years ago that we 
received from Para a skull that was buried in the mud on the shore of 
the Marajo, at its confluence with the Amazon. In this skull also one 
finds all the characteristics of metallization of the bone; the specimen 
is relatively heavy, of a maroon color and has a metallic sound. 
Chemical analysis made on a part of this skull showed the existence 
of a very large quantity of oxide of iron and also a large proportion 
of alumina, two substances which do not enter normally into the 
composition of bone. Nevertheless everything leads us to believe 
that this skull is a relatively very recent one; its craniologic char- 
acteristics are not at all similar to those of the skulls of Lagoa Santa; 
it was found in a rapidly forming estuary the age of which is plainly 
less than that of the caves. Hence metallization of bones is not at 
all a special characteristic of fossil crania." 

Lacerda expresses no decided opinion either for or against the 
acceptance of antiquity for the Lagoa Santa human remains, but 
his remarks are evidence of hesitation in assuming any great age. 

On the occasion of the meeting of the Congress of the Americanists 
at Copenhagen, in 1883, some of the skulls and bones from the cave of 
Sumidouro were exhibited by Ltitken, 1 who, at the same time, gave 
the principal data concerning the history of the discoveries. In the 
report of this communication, we read (pp. 43-44) the following 
sensible remarks: 

Lund himself did not go beyond the formal statement that "the 
most important criterion for fixing the relative age of these remains 
is absolutely wanting, because they were not found in their origi- 
nal position. Reinhardt, who had a profound knowledge of the 
subject, although he did not have an opportunity to explore anew 
the Brazil caves, has given the opinion, it is true, 'that there is no 
doubt that the human remains were deposited in the cave at nearly 
the same epoch as those of the extinct animals/ and that 'the latter 
have been the contemporaries of man, at least in the last part of their 
existence.' Nevertheless, I have not been able to convince myself 
that we are authorized to adopt this hypothesis other than as likely 
or probable. I know well that de Quatrefages, in his discourse on 
'The fossil man of Lagoa Santa in Brazil and his actual descendants,' 
at the Anthropological Congress in Moscow in 1879, arrived at the 
same conclusions as Reinhardt . . . that is to say, that the con- 
temporaneity of man with the extinct species of animals is evident 

i Liitken, Chr. Fr., Exposition de quelques-uns des cranes et des autres ossements humains de Minas- 
gera6s dans le Bresil central decouverts et d6terres par le feu Professeur P. W. Lund; in C. R. Congrhs inter- 
national des Amiricanistes, Copenhagen, 1883, p. 40. 



172 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

and incontestable. However, although I do not wish to express 
myself except with reserve on a question of geology, I must neverthe- 
less acknowledge that I range myself more with the naturalists who 
do not feel authorized to reach positive conclusions on the relative 
age of bones, objects, utensils, etc., which are found in caves, and 
which belong to different anthropologic and geologic epochs. It is a 
fact fully acknowledged by the explorers of caves, that very often 
there are found in such localities most ancient remains occupying a 
more elevated position than those from more recent periods, and that 
the grade of petrifaction of the bones may differ even in the two 
extremities of the same specimen according to whether it had been 
exposed or covered, more or less subjected to the action of water, etc. 
This shows what could have taken place, especially in such a cave as 
that of Sumidouro, which derives its name from the periodic penetra- 
tion into it of the waters of the neighboring lake ... It will be 
easily perceived that bones from different formations and periods 
could, under such circumstances, have become intimately mixed and 
could have assumed in the course of time, after having been exposed 
to the same influence of water, a similar aspect and the same degree 
of petrifaction." 

In the remaining part of his communication, Lutken speaks of the 
fact that teeth worn as are those in the Lagoa Santa skulls are found 
in different primitive races. And in conclusion he says: "The ques- 
tion of the contemporaneity of man and extinct animals in Brazil 
would probably not be very much cleared by new excavations in the 
caves of that country; it is necessary in advance, that the relations 
between the extinct and the living fauna of Brazil be well fixed, and a 
solution of this important question will probably be found much more 
in the layers of the pampas than in the caves of the limestone hills." 

In 1884 there appeared a communication on the subject of the 
Lagoa Santa skulls, by Kollmann, 1 who was able to examine the col- 
lection at Copenhagen and measured four of the best-preserved 
crania. These belonged to strong men; they are dark-brown in color, 
and heavy, owing to petrifaction. They resemble one another com- 
pletely. Another skull, that of a female, presents the same charac- 
teristics and the same is true of six additional calvaria. 

The skulls do not show very strong muscular ridges, with the excep- 
tion of the crista infra-temporalis , which in all four of the male speci- 
mens is of an extraordinary development. The brain part of the crania 
is very well developed. "The old Lagoans are in this respect equally 
as well developed as our old long-headed Germans." The outline of 
the norma verticalis is a long oval. The forehead is vertical (!). 
The region of the greater wings of the sphenoid is in toto more 
depressed than usual. All the five skulls (including the Rio de 

1 Die Schadeln von Lagoa-Santa; in Zeitschrift fur FAlinologie, xvi, Berlin, 1884, pp. 194-199. 



hedliCka] 



SKELETAL REMAINS OF EAELY MAN 



173 



Janeiro specimen) are hypsi-dolichocephalic, with average length- 
breadth index of 72.2 and an average length-height index of 80.2. 
The face, in consequence of the strong outstanding of the zygomatic 
arches and small height, is chamseprosopic, the upper facial index 
averaging Jf.7. The nasal aperture is in all mesorhinic, the average 
nasal index amounting to 50.2. The palate is very broad and is 
brachystaphyline. All four skulls show prenasal fossae. The orbits 
are low, average index 78.3. There is a rather strong grade of 
prognathism. 

His determinations in regard to the racial characteristics of the 
Lagoa Santa skulls agree, Kollmann states, with those of Reinhardt, 
Quatrefages, and of Lacerda and Peixoto; but, "howsoever valuable 
all these individual features established by means of craniology are, 
much more significant still is the fact, which must impress itself upon 
everyone, that the skulls from Lagoa Santa have the character of 
American crania, the racial features of the still-living Indians." 

Curiously, however, the above does not lead Kollmann to any doubt 
as to the antiquity of the specimens ; it is for him a proof rather of 
absence of changes in these features in America since the period of 
the American diluvium (p. 206). 

The measurements (Kollmann's) of the specimens are as follows: 



Crania of Lagoa Santa 











Lacerda 


No. 1 


No. 2 


No. 3 


No. 4 


and 
Peixoto 
specimen 


18.0 


18.0 


18.9 


17.7 


18.5 


13.5 


13.0 


13.0 


13.4 


12.9 


10.0 


9.8 


9.5 


8.8 


9.2 


14.5 


14.6 


15.0 


14.5 


14.5 


51.2 


51.0 


52.3 


55.4 


51.5 


11.0 


11.6 


11.3 


11.4 


— 


0.0 


6.6 


6.3 


6.4 


— 


13.8 


13.3 


13.2 


13.5 


13.0 


4.7 


4.6 


4.6 


4.9 


4.5 


2.3 


2.3 


2.2 


2.5 


2.4 


4.2 


4.2 


4.1 


4.2 


4.1 


3.2 


3.5 


3.0 


3.3 


3.3 


4.7 


5.2 


4.3 


— 


— 


4.7 


4.7 


4.5 


— 


— 


74.9 


72.2 


68.7 


75.7 


69.7 


80.5 


81.1 


79.3 


81.9 


78.3 


107.4 


112. S 


115.3 


108.2 


— 


43-4 


49.6 


47.7 


47.4 


— 


48.9 


50.0 


47.8 


51.0 


53.3 


76.1 


83.3 


73.1 


78.5 


80.7 


100.0 


90.3 


W4. 6 


— 


— 



Average 
of the 
indices 



Length of skull 

Breadth of skull 

Breadth of forehead 

Height of forehead 

Circumference, horizontal 
Face, height (estimated) . 

Face, upper, height 

Face, breadth ...'. 

Nose, height 

Nose, breadth 

Orbits, breadth 

Orbits, height 

Palate, length 

Palate, breadth 

Length-breadth index . . . 

Length-height index 

Breadth-height index 

Facial index, upper 

Nasal index 

Orbital index 

Palate index 



110.8 
47.0 
50.2 
78.3 
98. S 



Kollmann's conclusions, based in the main on this Lagoa Santa 
series, are as follows: 

"1. The varieties of the American man show already in the 
diluvium the same face and skull forms as to-day. They have 
already the characteristics of the Indian, 



174 



BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 



[BULL. 52 



"2. Man is therefore not only an old guest in America, but he is 
also furnished, already in diluvial times, with the same unmistakable 
racial characteristics as he presents this day. 

"3. These racial characteristics, it necessarily follows from this 
evidence, originated even earlier. 

"4. These racial characteristics were not further modified by 
environment. 

"5. On the basis of the above observations and from the zoologic 
standpoint, a future change of racial characteristics of mankind is in 
the highest degree improbable." 

In the present state of knowledge of the Lagoa Santa caves 
material, of the Indian in general, of American geology, and of the 
imperfect morphologic stability of the human organism, these opin- 
ions can have of course but little more than historic value. 

In 1885 a brief report on the whole collection of the Sumidouro 
Cave human remains was published by ten Kate, 1 who had personally 
examined all the crania preserved at Copenhagen; other bones than 
the skulls were apparently not considered. 

The crania were recognized by ten Kate as having close analogy 
with the Indian skulls of Lower California. With the probable excep- 
tion of two, all the specimens are masculine. Their principal 
measurements are as follows : 





Measurements 


of the Lagoa Santa skulls by ten Kate 2 






Specimen Nos. 


Vault 


Orbits 


Nose 


Length 


Breadth 


Index 


Breadth 


Height 


Index 


Length 


Breadth 


Index 


MALES 
1 


cm. 
18.4 
18.6 
19.3 
18.4 
19.2 
18.2 
17.8 
17.8 
19.6 
18.2 
17.4 
18.6 
18.2 


cm. 
13.0 
13.4 

12.9 
13.4 
13.2 
13.2 
12.9 
14.2 
13.2 
12.8 
13.3 
13.5 


70.6 
72.0 

70.1 
69.8 
72.5 
74.2 
72.5 
72.5 
72.5 
73.6 
71.5 
74.2 


cm. 
3.9 
3.7 
3.5 
3.9 
4.1 
3.9 
3.7 


cm. 
3.6 
3.4 
3.3 
3.3 
3.0 
3.4 
3.2 


92.3 
91.9 
94.3 
84.6 
73.2 
87.2 
86.5 


cm. 
4.1 

4.6 
4.9 
4.9 


cm. 
2.45 

2.4 
2.3 
2.5 
2.3 


59.8 


2 


. 


3 


_ 


5 





6 


50.0 


7 


61.0 


8 


48.9 


9 


_ 


10 


_ 


11 





12 


__ 


13 





14 









Average 


18.4 


13.25 


72.1 


3.8 


3.3 


86.9 


4.6 


2.4 


51.6 


Minimum 

Maximum 

FEMALES 
4 


17.4 
19.6 

17.9 
16.8 


12 8 
14.2 

12.5 
13.6 


69.8 
74.2 

69.8 
80.95 


3.5 
4.1 

3.6 


3.0 
3.6 

3.3 


73.2 
94.3 

91.7 


4.1 
4.9 


2.3 
2.5 


46.9 
69.8 


15 










1 ten Kate, H., Sur lescranes deLagoa-Santa; mBull. Soc.d'Anthr, Paris, 3™ ser.,vm, 1885, pp. 240-244. 

2 Table rearranged by A. H, 



hedliCka] SKELETAL REMAINS OF EARLY MAN 175 

The skulls are dolichocephalic, but in one of the females the 
cephalic index rises to brachycephaly. This skull differs from the 
others also in some other respects. It is difficult to say whether it 
represents an individual variation only or whether it is an evidence 
that there has been a mixture of different racial elements. 

However this may be, "it is plain that if Kollmann had examined 
15 instead of only 11 of the skulls, he would not have said that all 
the crania belonged to individuals of one perfectly pure race, and he 
probably would not have reached, on the basis of such homogeneity, 
the conclusion of a great antiquity. 

"Nothing is less proven than the opinion that at the epoch of the 
race of Lagoa Santa, mixture of this with other ethnic elements had 
not as yet taken place." 

As to the statements of Lund, Reinhardt, and Kollmann, that the 
skulls of Lagoa Santa offer well-defined characteristics of American 
crania and of those of the actual Indians, ten Kate says: "I accept 
willingly the view that the skulls of Lagoa Santa offer great analogies 
with other American series, notably with the Botocudos and natives 
of Lower California; " but he is not willing to admit, on account of the 
great differences in the craniologic characteristics of the different 
Indians, that the form of the Lagoa Santa skulls represents the 
typical form of the American aborigines in general. 

As to the antiquity of the Sumidouro cave remains, "I am/' says 
ten Kate, "with Mr. Liitken, rather of the opinion of those who do 
not accept as yet the contemporaneity of the man of Lagoa Santa 
with the extinct mammals of the Quaternary period in Brazil." 

In 1887 the Lagoa Santa skulls are mentioned once more by A. de 
Quatrefages in his "Histoire generale des races humaines." 1 The 
author proceeds as if the antiquity of the remains was established 
beyond any possible doubt. 

"These ancient inhabitants of Brazil," he says, "were also the 
contemporaries of now extinct species of animals; they belonged to 
the geologic age which preceded ours. . . . The man who left his 
bones in the cave of Sumidouro lived at an epoch corresponding 
probably to our reindeer age." 

The next communication on the subject of the Lagoa Santa human 
remains is another paper by Liitken, published in the first volume of 
memoirs from the Lund Museum. 2 It deals principally with the 
history of the finds and with considerations relative to their age. 
The conclusions concerning the latter point are simple and judicial. 
Liitken says : 

"None of the bones found in the caves showed any effect of man's 
activity, nor did the human bones show any traces of attacks by the 

i Paris, 1887, pp. 82-83. 

2 Liitken, Chr. Fr., Indledende Bemaerkninger om Menneskelevninger i Brasiliens Huler og i de Lundske 
Samlinger. En Samling af Afhandlinger e Museo Lundii, I, Kjobenhavn, 1888, pp. 1-29. 



176 



BTJBEAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 



[bull. 52 



carnivores with whose bones they coexisted." And, as to their 
antiquity, "I do not believe that, on the basis of the information 
relating to the circumstances under which the human bones were 
found in the Brazil caves, mingled with the remains of mammals of 
species partly extinct and partly still living, one can draw other con- 
clusions than this, that it is permitted to regard the contemporaneity 
of the aborigines of Brazil and of a number of species of extinct 
animals (Pliocene or Post-Pliocene) as more or less likely, but that 
this contemporaneity should not pass in any way for demonstrated, so 
it could serve as a basis of more extended conclusions." 

In 1888, finally, the entire human skeletal material from the Lagoa 
Santa caves in the collections at Copenhagen and also that in London 
was examined by Soren Hansen. 1 The principal attention is given 
again to the crania, yet some remarks are devoted also to other 
bones of the skeleton, winch, unfortunately, are for the most part 
fragmentary. Measurements of 17 skulls are given. The numbers 
designating the specimens are not the same as those used by Koll- 
mann nor those of ten Kate, and the measurements differ in some 
respects from those of both previous observers. A number of 
dimensions in addition to those formerly recorded are given, as 
the height of the skull, circumference, etc. The measurements are 
as follows : 

Measurements of the Lagoa Santa skulls by Soren Hansen 2 



Number; Collection 


Vault 


Basion- 
bregma 
height 


Height- 
length 
index 


Height- 
breadth 
index 


Circum- 
ference 


Trans- 
verse 
arc 


Antero- 
pos- 


Length 


Breadth 


Index 


terior 
arc 


1. Copenhagen 


19.4 
18.6 
19.2 
18.4 
18.5 
18.6 
17.7 
18.8 
18.2 
18.0 
19.6 
18.2 
18.3 
17.6 
17.2 
18.0 
16.6 


13.0 
12.8 
13.3 
12.8 
12.9 
13.0 
12.4 
13.2 
12.8 
12.8 
14.0 
13.0 
13.2 
12.7 
12.5 
13.1 
13.4 


67.0 
68.8 
69.3 
69.6 
69.7 
69.9 
70.1 
70.2 
70.3 
71.1 
71.4 
71.4 
72.1 
72.2 
72.7 
72.8 
80.7 


13.4 
13.8 
14.5 

12.6 
13.8 
13.6 

14.0 

13.0 
14.0 


69.8 
75.0 
78.4 

71.2 
73.4 
74.7 

71.4 

75.6 
77.8 


100.8 
107.8 
112.4 

101.6 
IO4.6 
106.3 

100.0 

104.0 
106.9 


51.0 
52.0 
51.0 
51.5 

48.5 
52.0 
50.5 
50.0 
53.5 
50.5 
50.5 
49.0 
48.0 
50.0 
48.0 


29.5 
31.5 
31.0 
31.0 

28.5 
31.5 
31.0 

32.5 
30.5 
31.5 
29.0 
29.5 
31.5 
31.0 


- 


3. Copenhagen 

4. Copenhagen 

5. Rio de Janeiro 

6. Copenhagen 

7. Copenhagen 


40.0 
37.5 
39.0 

38.6 




38.0 




_ 




39.5 


12. Copenhagen 

13. Copenhagen 


37.0 


15. Copenhagen 


37.0 
37.0 











Averages of Nos. 
1-16 


IS. 4 


13.0 


70.5 


13.6 


74.I 


104.9 


50.6 


30.6 


38.2 







1 Hansen, Soren, Lagoa Santa Racen. En Samling af Afhandlinger e Museo Lundii, I, Kjobenhavn, 
888, pp. 1-37. 

2 Table rearranged by A. H., but order of records, based on cephalic index, as in original. 



HKDLifKA] SKELETAL KEMAINS OF EAELY MAN 177 

Measurements of the Lagoa Santa skulls by Soren Hansen — Continued 





Orbits 


Nose 


Miscellaneous 


Number; 
Collection 


Breadth 


Height 


Index 


Height 


Breadth 


Index 


Basion- 

nasion 

line 


Diameter 
frontal 
mini- 
mum 


Length 
of fora- 
men 
mag- 
num 


1. Copenhagen.. 


4.0 


3.4 


85.0 


— 


— 














2. Copenhagen.. 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


9.4 


— 


3. Copenhagen.. 


3.8 


3.0 


78.0 


4.6 


2.2 


47.8 


9.S 


9.4 


3.7 


4. Copenhagen.. 


3.7 


3.3 


80.$ 


4.9 


2.3 


46. 


10.3 


10.0 


3.6 


5. Rio de Janeiro 


4.1 


3.3 


80.5 


4.5 


2.4 


53.3 


9.3 


9.2 


— 


C. Copenhagen.. 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


9.2 


— 


7. Copenhagen.. 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


9.8 


8.4 


— 


8. London 


3.8 


3.5 


02.1 


4.8 


2.5 


52.1 


9.8 


9.7 


3.7 


9. Copenhagen.. 


3.9 


3.6 


02.3 


4.6 


2.4 


52.2 


9.8 


9.8 


3.4 


10. Copenhagen.. 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


9.4 


— 


11. Copenhagen.. 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


10.8 


9.5 


3.5 


12. Copenhagen.. 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


9.2 


— 


13. Copenhagen.. 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


14. Copenhagen.. 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


15. Copenhagen.. 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


9.3 


8.7 


3.1 


16. Copenhagen.. 


3.8 


3.3 


86.8 


4.8 


2.5 


52.1 


10.2 


9.0 


3.8 


17. Copenhagen.. 


- 


— 


- 


3.9 


2.0 


51.3 


— 


8.8 


— 


Averages of 




















Nos. 1-16 


3.9 


3.35 


86. 4 


4.7 


2.4 


50.7 


9.9 


9.3 


3.55 



At the end of his article, Hansen gives the following resume, in 
French, of the conclusions at which he arrived : 

" The collection of fossil bones conserved at the Zoological Museum 
of the University of Copenhagen comprises 15 more or less complete 
skulls and a very considerable "quantity of large and small fragments 
of crania, besides nearly 30 lower jaws, almost all broken, which give 
us the approximate number of individuals; in addition, there are 
numerous long bones, entire or broken, v,ertebrse, bones of the pelvis, 
bones of the hands and feet, etc. All these bones are calcareous and 
more or less incrusted by ferruginous agglomerations. Their color 
is quite variable and presents all the shades from yellow to dark- 
brown and passing into red, altogether as in the animal bones from 
the same caves. 

"All stages of life are represented with the exception of the young- 
est infants. The teeth are often much worn, but rarely diseased. 
The wear of the incisors is in some cases so considerable that the roots 
are involved, in which case their surface presents a form elongated 
in the sagittal direction. Beyond this, it appears that the population 
from which these skeletal remains proceed was strong and enjoyed 
very robust health, nearly all pathologic alteration being absent, 
in the same way as traces of wounds or any kind of mutilations. . . . 
21535°— Bull. 52—12 12 



178 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

"The fossil skulls of Lagoa Santa present, with about one exception, 
a remarkable uniformity. The 14 skulls of Copenhagen, that of Rio de 
Janeiro, and that of London, all have the same aspect, all are very high, 
very long and have a roundish [should probably read oval — A. H.] 
vault. The face is of medium breadth, the same as the orbits and 
the nose. The front is not sloping, but rather somewhat pyramidal, 
the supraorbital ridges are well-developed, the interorbital part is 
broad and strong. The skulls are very prognathic, the subnasal part 
especially. The bizygomatic diameter is large and the temporal 
root of the zygomse is very strong, producing a considerable relief 
above the mastoideal region. The skulls are of a medium size, but 
their state of preservation does not permit measurements of capacity, 
of which a notion can be obtained only from the various measure- 
ments. 

" The lower jaws are strong, with a well-developed chin and generally 
with large genial apophyses. 

"According to the anthropologic terminology, the skulls of Lagoa 
Santa are dolichocephalic, hypsistenocephalic, prognathic, meso- 
facial, megaseme, mesorhinic, and phenozygous. The type corre- 
sponds perfectly to that of the Papuans, a fact already pointed to 
for the skull of Rio de Janeiro by de Quatrefages, but still more pro- 
nounced when one regards the complete series instead of the sole 
specimen which he knew. The uniformity of these skulls supports 
the theory of that savant concerning the existence of a primitive 
race, spreading over the larger part of South America and mixed with 
other elements (brachycephalic). 

"The only atypical skull from the Lagoa Santa caves is brachy- 
cephalic, but in the remainder of its characteristics, corresponds quite 
well with the rest of the collection. 

"The divers bones of the trunk present only a mediocre interest 
and the only remarkable thing is the frequence of transitory lumbo- 
sacral vertebra (three times for six sacra). 

"The bones of the members indicate small or medium stature, but 
considerable strength, a new point of resemblance to the Papuans. 
The oleocranon cavity of the humerus is in many instances perforated. 
The ulnae are somewhat incurved. The femora show a well-developed 
linea aspera as well as the third trochanter. The tibiae are very 
platycnemic." 

As to the antiquity of the remains, Hansen adduces (Danish and 
French text) that — 

"The human remains were in no case so associated with the bones 
of animals that one could reach a conclusion with absolute certainty 
as to their contemporaneity with either a Tertiary or a Quaternary 
fauna. In the absence of all antiquities one can also know nothing 



hkdliCka] SKELETAL" REMAINS OF EARLY MAN" 179 

about the absolute age of the population, although it is quite likely 
that it is very ancient." 

As to geologic details, "I shall simply add that the contents of 
the cave of Sumidouro, the most important of all, were so disturbed 
when Lund came to its exploration that all determination of geologic 
age of the skeletal remains is impossible. . . . 

"The fossil bones of Lagoa Santa were not found under geologic 
conditions sufficiently clear to permit the drawing of paleoethnologic 
conclusions with the absolute certainty demanded by science. Never- 
theless these remains are precious documents for the definite solution 
of the great and important question of the antiquity of man, a ques- 
tion which by its delicate nature demands patience and prudence." 

An additional original study of several of the Lagoa Santa crania 
in Copenhagen was made by Virchow, and is reported in his Crania 
Americana. 1 Virchow accepts, in general, Hansen's conclusions. 
He speaks of the remains only as "prehistoric," without regarding 
the crania as very homogeneous, at least so far as height, orbits, and 
nose are concerned, and points out on the basis of the Sumidouro 
material that ' ' We must take account of the fact that already in the 
oldest settlements of the aborigines there were represented different 
races. Not only did brachycephalic and dolichocephalic tribes exist 
but the regions of their distribution lay close together." 

Additional references to the Lagoa Santa skulls occur in a number 
of other authors, but with one exception they are without special 
importance. 2 The exception is Rivet's recent and able paper on 
"The Lagoa Santa race among the precolumbian population of 
Ecuador." 3 After giving a resume of what has hitherto been pub- 
lished on the Brazil cave finds, and after enumerating the charac- 
teristics of the Lagoa Santa "race," the author shows conclusively 
that crania of the same type occur in some of the prehistoric burials 
of Ecuador and also in many other parts of South America, from 
Ecuador and Brazil to Tierra del Fuego, down to practically the 
present time. The skulls of Fontezuelas and Arrecifes belong evi- 
dently, according to Rivet, to t'he same race, and he feels inclined to 
add that of Miramar. As to the age of these specimens and of the 
Lagoa Santa remains, the author expresses reserve. 

Critical Remarks 

The evidence relating to the Lagoa Santa material may be compared 
with a considerable quantity of ore, which must pass through the 
reduction process to determine its grade. So far as the records of the 

1 Virchow, R., Crania Ethnica Americana, Berlin, 1892, pp. 32-33. 

2 For example Gervais, P., Zoo logic et paleonto logic g£nerales, l re ser., Paris, 1S67-1869, p. 252; Topinard 
P., Elements d'anthropologie genfirale, Paris, 1885. 

3 Rivet, P., La race de Lagoa-Santa chez les populations, pnScolombiennes de l'Equateur; in Bull, ct 
Mem. Soc. d'Anlhr. Paris, 5™ ser., ix, fasc. 2, 1908, pp. 209-274. 



180 BUREAU UF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

characteristics of the bones are concerned, the data evidently cor- 
respond to rather low-grade ore. In fact, owing to differences in 
results reached by the different observers (the average breadth of the 
skulls being given, for instance, as 13.25 cm. by one, and as but 
13.0 cm. by another, author), with the paucity of records on skeletal 
parts other than the skulls, the data on the Lagoa Santa material 
suggest the need of a thorough restudy of the whole collection, by 
students employing well-tested, modern instruments and approved 
methods. 

The presence of the remains in caves is not of particular signifi- 
cance. Wherever caves were convenient, the American aborigines, as 
other primitive peoples, utilized them for habitation, shelter, storage, 
ceremonies, and burial. The cliff-dwellers of the southwestern United 
States, for example, made use of the caves and shelters of that region 
for all these purposes, and the Tarahumare and other tribes of Mexico 
do likewise at the present day. 

The presence in the cave of Sumidouro of parts of the skeletons of 
upwards of 30 individuals of all ages, with the bones of some still in 
their natural associations, is sufficient evidence of the fact that the 
cave served as a place of burial. "Whether the bodies were interred 
in the accumulations in the cave or were simply deposited on the 
floor is not apparent. It is well known that both methods have 
been employed even by a single people. 

The absence from, the Sumidouro cave of objects of ornament and 
of implements and utensils, with the exception of one muller, is a 
fact of secondary importance only, having little bearing on the prob- 
lems of race antiquity. Objects of wood, fabrics, feathers, and other 
perishable articles decay rapidly where water has free access to them, 
or they may be carried away by running water. Many burials in 
caves, as most of those of late prehistoric times in Chihuahua, a 
number of which were explored by the writer, are lacking in objects 
of art except remnants of costumes and wrappings of the body. 

The association in a single cave of human remains with bones of 
extinct animals can not be regarded as establishing by itself con- 
temporaneity of the race and the animal species to which the bones 
belong. The acceptance of the theory of such contemporaneity 
requires proofs that both the animal and the human bones were in 
the cave before the extinction of the species represented by the 
former. On this point there is no satisfactory evidence in the present 
case. . No part of the cave showed ancient deposits only; the red 
clay, which seemed to be the oldest and least disturbed sediment, 
contained on the one hand no bones of man, and on the other held 
bones of deer belonging to species still living. The extinct forms 
were represented by a few bones only, and in some instances, as that of 
the monkey, only by a piece of a single bone; and the fossil animal 



hrdliCka] SKELETAL REMAINS OF EARLY MAN 181 

bones were irregular in both position and. distribution, being mingled 
indiscriminately with human and with recent animal bones. These 
facts show that the period of deposition of the fossil bones them- 
selves in this cave, which is provided with both vertical and lateral 
entrances and is periodically inundated, is entirely problematic; 
and from such facts it follows that the assumption of equal antiquity 
for the human and the fossil animal remains of the Sumidouro cave, 
on the basis of their association, is unwarranted. 

While the presence in this cave of great quantities of shells and of 
bones of animals of species still existing, which were not inhabitants 
of the cave, would not ipso facto disprove the age of any other remains 
therein, it indicates the possibility of a casual, though not necessarily 
very recent, introduction by the elements of the fossil animal bones. 
And the distribution of the modern bones over the floor of the cave 
and at all depths in the deposits affords ample proof of the extensive 
disturbances which have taken place in these deposits through the 
periodic invasion of floods. 

The strong point in the claim to antiquity of the human bones in 
this cave, as in so many similar cases in South America, is their more 
or less advanced alteration in color and composition, their state of 
partial petrifaction, and, furthermore, their similarity in these respects 
to the associated bones of extinct animals. This question of fossiliza- 
tion has often proved embarrassing to anthropologists. It is so 
fraught with uncertainties that probably no responsible paleontol- 
ogist would risk maintaining that two animal bones, because of 
their similar color, weight, and other evidences of mineralization, 
are therefore of the same age, or even that either, by reason of these 
conditions, is necessarily geologically ancient. But let a human 
bone take the place of one of the animal bones and the case seems 
to assume a totally different aspect. Its u fossilization" brands it at 
once with the majority of observers as of great age. However, in the 
present case the facts in respect to this point are so readily inter- 
preted that a safe conclusion regarding the relative age of the human 
remains should not be difficult. 

The human bones from the Sumidouro cave present various grades 
of discoloration and progress of petrifaction. This is stated clearly 
by Lund and also by Hansen, and indicated by Blake, but it is not 
true, so far as shown, of the bones of the extinct animals. This fact 
led Lund at one time (see p. 157) to regard the human bones as 
derived from several periods. In this connection we have to consider 
the important and oft-repeated statements of Lund that the skeletal 
remains of the recent animals also showed changes in varying degrees 
(see p. 157), ranging from relative freshness to a state of mineraliza- 
tion corresponding to that of the fossil bones of extinct species. Some, 
of the relatively modern species were apparently as fully petrified as 



lS'2 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

any in the cave. Thus the changes in the bones of animals of still- 
existing species were evidently similar in general to those in the 
human bones, and there is equal justification in both cases for con- 
sidering the remains contemporary with the extinct species. 

In view of these considerations, petrifaction as an index of age in 
this particular cave must necessarily be regarded as of little value. 
The potency of mineral substances of the soil in altering bones is 
very pronounced, and this potency is materially increased by the 
presence of water, especially when the latter carries in solution, 
as it often does, the organic and inorganic constituents favoring 
f ossilization. Such agencies are sufficient to account for the changes, 
within a few centuries, observed in the human and recent animal 
bones found in the Sumidouro cave. On the western coast of Florida, 
as reported by Vaughan and the writer on another occasion, 1 similar 
agencies are causing the rapid petrification of human bones and 
other objects subject to their influence, and these have produced 
also in relatively recent times in other parts of America changes 
in bones very much like those observed in the Sumidouro cave. 
One such instance is the cranium reported from the mouth of the 
Amazon by Lacerda (see p. 171), and many striking examples are 
seen among the brown and blackish-brown mineralized human 
remains collected by Moreno and also by the writer from the super- 
ficial and relatively recent alluvial deposits in certain parts of the 
valley of the Rio Negro. 2 

That the fossil animal bones from the cave under consideration 
presented the same degree of petrifaction as the associated human 
bones, rests only on statements and superficial evidence, but it is 
quite obvious, as already mentioned (see p. 7), that petrifaction 
under given conditions may proceed only to a certain stage, where it 
necessarily stops or becomes exceedingly slow. Hence two bones of 
widely different ages could well present the same aspect of petrifac- 
tion, a condition which in all probability exists in the Sumidouro 
cave. 

There remain to be reviewed the anthropologic characteristics 
of the bones, and the first query that presents itself in this connec- 
tion is, What has become of the low sloping foreheads which Lund 
so accentuated in his letters ? It is certain that none of the examples 
described present any such feature. (Pis. 16, 17.) It may also 
be asked, Where are the human bones from the five or six other 
caves mentioned as having contained such remains ? Also, trace 
seems to be lost of the skulls from the Sumidouro cave (excepting 
the specimen in Rio de Janeiro) bearing the characteristic wounds 
which Lund mentioned. However, this last point is quite immaterial. 

i See Bulletin 33 of the Bureau of American Ethnology. 

2 See chapter on The Ancient Patagonians and that on tlie Homo pampseus. 



BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 



BULLETIN 52 PLATE 16 





A LAGOA SANTA SKULL. (After Soren Hansen) 



BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 



BULLETIN 52 PLATE 17 





A LAGOA SANTA SKULL. (After Soren Hansen) 



hkdliCka] SKELETAL REMAINS OF EARLY MAN 183 

As to the actual anthropologic data on the remains, a summary of 
which has been given in preceding pages, it may be stated that 
notwithstanding the before-mentioned differences in the published 
records, the cranial type of the Lagoa Santa caves may be regarded 
as in general fairly well known ; and this type agrees in every point 
of importance with what may be considered the fundamental traits 
of the American race, more particularly in the dolichocephalic strain of 
that race. The opinions to this effect of Lund, Kollmann, Hansen, 
as well as of ten Kate and Rivet, will doubtless stand without 
material alteration. The objection of ten Kate that there is no 
general American type, and his inclination toward regarding the 
American natives as racially heterogeneous, views entertained also by 
Rivet and many other authors, when the mass of present evidence 
is carefully considered can be admitted as true only to a certain 
rather limited extent. The fact is that the American stem or 
homotype is not homogeneous ; it presents in different tribes and 
localities the extremes of head form and also numerous other 
pronounced differences. Yet, the living Indian, as well as his 
skeletal remains, are characterized throughout Arnerica, from Canada 
to the limits of Tierra del Fuego, by certain fundamental traits 
that indicate unity in a more general sense of the word. This 
is not the place, however, to go into detailed enumeration and 
discussion of these traits. 1 It may suffice to say that they apply 
especially to the facial features, the nasal aperture, the malar bones, 
the maxillae, the base of the skull, the teeth; but they extend also 
to certain characteristics of the vault itself, and beyond that to the 
forms and relative dimensions of numerous parts of the skeleton. 
This general American type is more or less related to that of the 
yellow-brown peoples, wherever these are found without decided 
admixture with other strains. These yellow-brown people, includ- 
ing the American, represent one great stream of humanity. In this 
way it is explainable how the crania from Brazil, and again those of 
southern California, with still others, have been found to present 
resemblances to the Polynesians, or even to some of the less negroid 
Melanesians; it is a basal or souche relation, and the Americans 
may well be wholly free of any connection, except the ancient 
parental contact, with these branches. 

Besides agreeing closely with the dolichocephalic American type, 
which had an extensive representation throughout Brazil, including 
the Province of Minas Geraes, and in many other parts of South 
America, it is the same type which is met with farther north, among 
the Aztec, Tarasco, Otomi, Tarahumare, Pima, Californians, ancient 
Utah cliff-dwellers, ancient northeastern Pueblos, Shoshoni, many 
of the Plains Tribes, Iroquois, Eastern Siouan, and Algonquian. 

1 See symposium on origin of American aborigines, in Amer. Anfhr., n. s., xiv, No. 1, 1912. 



i84 BUREAU OF 4.MEEXCAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

But it is apart from the Eskimo > who form a distinct subtype of the 
yellow-brown strain of humanity. Outside of the features assimilat- 
ing them with the American dolichocephalic Indian type, the Lagoa 
Santa crania appear to present no characteristics whatever that 
could be regarded as more than individual variations. 

Of the other parts of the skeletons there is unfortunately only the 
brief description of Hansen, but what he has said agrees with the 
prevalent holocene American type and suggests no geologic antiquity. 

The assumption of racial kinship between the Lagoa Santa crania 
and the negroid Papuans is not justifiable. Resemblance of the 
vault is a character the value of which is as yet imperfectly under- 
stood, but within certain limits is not great; it alone, save in very 
exceptional circumstances, can not be regarded as decisive in racial 
differentiation. 

In view of all the above facts and considerations, it seems quite 
evident that the human remains from the Lagoa Santa caves can 
not be accepted, without further and more conclusive proofs, as 
belonging to a race which lived contemporaneously with the extinct 
species of animals found in the same caves ; and there is no reliable 
foundation in the remainder of the data relating to the specimens on 
which such geologic antiquity could be based. 

THE CARCARANA BONES 

Historical Notes and Previous Observations 

In 1864 F. Seguin, a collector of and dealer in fossils, brought to 
Buenos Aires some fragments of human bones, which he said were 
found in the Pampean deposits of the banks of the Rio Carcarana, 
about 25 leagues north of Rosario in the northern part of the Province 
of Buenos Aires, together with bones of the fossil bear and horse. 

The find is mentioned for the first time in 1865 by Burmeister, 1 
who, however, was not permitted by Seguin to see the specimens. A 
little later they were sent to France and were eventually bought, with 
the rest of the Seguin collection, by the Museum d'Histoire Naturelle 
in Paris. In 1869 they were mentioned, and 1873 briefly described, 
by Gervais; 2 in 1874 the find was discussed by Moreno; 3 in 1875 and 
again in 1879 by Burmeister; 4 in 1881 they were reported with further 

1 Burmeister, G., Lista de los mamiferos fdsiles del terreno diluviano; in Analcs del Museo Publico de 
Buenos Aires, I, 1864-65, p. 298. See also, Ameghino, F., La antiguedad del hombre en El Plata, n, 
Paris-Buenos Aires, 1881, pp. 374-377; Lehmann-Nitsche, P., Nouvelles recherches sur la formation 
Pamp6enne, etc., in Revista del Museo de La Plata, xrv, Buenos Aires, 1907, pp. 209-213. 

2 Gervais, P., Zoologie et paleontologie generates; Premiere serie, Paris, 1867-69, p. 114; by same author, 
D6bris humains recueillis dans la Confederation Argentine avec desossements d'animaux appartenant a 
des especes perdues, in Journal de Zoologie, n, Paris, 1873, pp. 231-234, figs. 1-4, pi. v. 

3 Moreno, F. P., Noticias sobre antigiiedades de los Indios, del tiempo anterior a la Conquista, etc.; in 
Boletln de la Academia Nacional de Ciencias de Cdrdoba, I, Buenos Aires, 1874, pp. 130-149. 

* Burmeister, G ., Los caballos fosiles de la Republica Argentina; Buenos Aires, 1875, pp. 76-78; and, by 
same author, Description physique de la Republique Argentine, Buenos Aires, m, 1879, pp. 41-42. 



HedliCka] SKELETAL REMAINS OF EARLY MAN 185 

details by Ameghino; 1 in 1907 they were touched on by Roth 2 and, 
finally, in 1907, an account of the find was given by Lehmann-Nitsche. 3 

In his first communication on the subject(1865), Burmeister merely 
mentions the alleged find and his unsuccessful efforts to examine the 
bones. 

In his first note on the find (1869) Gervais also restricts himself to 
a simple mention of the bones and Seguin's information concerning 
them, but besides other remarks, makes this reference to the mingling 
of the human with fossil animal bones: "I leave it for others to decide 
whether there has not been some redistribution of earth sufficient to 
explain such a mingling." Nor is he less guarded in 1873, when the 
first description of the Carcarafia specimens appears from his pen. 

"The human bones, which constitute part of the second Seguin col- 
lection, are quite numerous, but they are reduced for the most 
part to slivers. Among them are fragments of skulls, portions of the 
long bones, and some phalanges, the latter being mostly well- 
preserved. . . . 

"These bones show two different varieties of coloration. Those 
of lighter color were scattered over the surface of the ground, having 
been removed from the deposit in which they lay and washed by 
water. The others, of brown color, were still in the ground. The 
piece of a femur, already partly exposed when found, is light in the 
half that was exposed and dark in the other. 

"The teeth or parts of teeth found with this skeletal debris are not 
less characteristic and indicate at least two individuals. They con- 
sist of incisors and molars. The crown is in every case more or less 
worn off, and the incisors in particular show in this respect the trans- 
versal wear, such as is peculiar to primitive races. We possess about 
30 of these teeth, several of which are shown in . . . this publi- 
cation" (see fig. 43). 

Seguin encountered also on the Carcarafia, "in common with the 
osseous debris mentioned above, stone implements comparable in 
certain aspects with those that characterize the paleolithic epoch in 
Europe. Specimens numbered 1, 2, and 4 are of quartzite; number 3 
is of chalcedony. The last three pieces . . . are quite comparable 
with well-known forms; they also indicate a rather recent epoch, but 
they should be compared with implements of the same sort that are 
still used by some South American tribes, or with those which they 
employed before the Conquest." 

1 Ameghino, F., La antigiiedad, etc., n, 1881, pp. 514-526. 

2 Roth, S., Ueber den Schiidel von Pontimelo (richtiger Fontezuelas) ; in Mitth. anat. Inst. Vesalianum 
zu Basel, 1889, pp. 6-9; also in Lehmann-Nitsche, Nouvelles recherches, etc., 1907, pp. 470-477. 

3 Lehmann-Nitsche, ibid., pp. 212-213. 



186 



BUREAU OF AMERICAN" ETHNOLOGY 



[bull. 32 



The illustrations given by Gervais show nine teeth, all of very 
ordinary form and size, and all somewhat worn (fig. 43), and four stone 
implements, more or less identical in form with quartzite implements 
from the Argentine coast (see section on Archeology). 

F. P. Moreno, one of the most experienced of the Argentine men of 
science, referring in 1874 to the alleged finds of the remains of ancient 
man in Argentina before that time, voices his doubts much more freely : 

"In the soil of the Province of Buenos Aires, above all in the banks 
of its numerous arroyos and lakes, there are discovered from time to 
time vestiges which indicate the existence of indigenous man anterior 
to the Conquest. 

"These vestiges, which represent fragments of domestic objects and 
some weapons, belong undoubtedly to the epoch of modern alluvia. 




Fig. 43. — Teeth from the Carcarana skull. (After Gervais.) 

Various authors have believed, nevertheless, that they should be 
assigned to an age contemporaneous with that of the great extinct 
American mammals; but the existence of Quaternary man in the 
Argentine territory is not yet certainly proven. 

"The discoveries which have been made in the Pampean strata 
during the last years are isolated and the human ' remains obtained 
have been brought to light by persons who are strangers to paleon- 
tology and little prepared for dealing with the problems of the 
pampas, and although these persons assure us that the remains were 
found mingled with the bones of the glyptodons and mylodons, we are 
not justified in attaching much importance to this circumstance. 



6Hdli£ka] SKELETAL, REMAINS OF EARLY MAN 187 

"Many times the bones of these animals are encountered in what 
were originally Pampean deposits, but which have been moved and 
reaccumulated along the banks of the streams; or they are found 
interred in the vegetal soil mixed with sand from the channels of 
those streams. I myself have gathered bones of a mylodon, which, 
displaced from the great Pampean mass, have been brought into such 
accumulations in the way just named. 

"The main reason of the announcements of such discoveries 
is, I am forced to say, the avidity with which certain persons, particu- 
larly those who in the Province of Buenos Aires occupy themselves with 
the collection of fossils for sale, desire to discover fossil man in the 
pampa. Relying on the great similarities of the works of the primi- 
tive man in Europe and those of the present natives in some parts 
of the South American continent, they believe themselves authorized 
in attributing the remains of the work of man distributed along 
the banks of the streams and lakes as well as among the sand dunes 
of the Atlantic coast, to an epoch contemporaneous with that of 
the cave man in Europe. I, myself, have had occasion to examine, 
although without much detail, the remains of the skull- of an indi- 
vidual said to be fossil and alleged to have been found beneath 
the carapace of a glyptodon; but these remains had a great resem- 
blance to some crania of the Tehuelche Indians of the period before 
the Conquest collected by myself along the southern bank of the 
Rio Negro. The wear of the teeth of the specimen, as well as 
that of the teeth pictured and described by Gervais (1873) is also 
characteristic of the Rio Negro skulls which I have mentioned 
and of those of the other primitive (but not fossil) races of our 
land. I believe that the remains and objects described by Professor 
Gervais and belonging to the collection of fossils which Seguin 
sold to the Museum of Paris, as well as the other human remains 
which, as I said above, I had the occasion to examine, belonged to 
some of the tribes which inhabited these regions before the Spanish 
occupation. ' 

[p. 132] "Leaving aside, then, finds which prove only that man 
was here a witness of the formation of the last alluvial deposits, 
it is necessary that there be discovered in abundance and by competent 
persons, human remains, together with products of man's industry, 
in diverse parts of this Province, in undisturbed deposits. . . . 

"The objects encountered up to this moment by the persons 
alluded to, and those which I myself have -gathered in some of my 
excursions in search of fossil mammals, show the domestic and 
industrial status of those who first peopled our territory, namely, 
the bellicose Querandi, who inhabited the site where, in 1535, Buenos 
Aires was founded, and who were forcibly expelled from their lands 
by the first Spanish expedition." 



188 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

And shortly afterward (1875) Burmeister expresses himself in 
much the same vein as Moreno: 

"Some collectors have mentioned fossil remains of man extracted 
from the Pampean deposits, and the}'' have even shown some of 
these to me, representing them as found in connection with frag- 
ments of Megatherium, Glyptodon, and other fossils of the antedilu- 
vian fauna of the pampa. I frankly confess that I do not find 
myself very much disposed to believe the affirmations of these 
collectors, because they know very well, through communicating 
with different persons, the scientific value of the discovery of fossil 
man, and, as they make their collections only with the intention 
of selling them, they believe with reason that there will be a large 
augmentation in the price if they can present among the objects 
they offer to the curious some rarity of the first order. Thus Seguin^ 
who carried collections of fossil bones to Paris, had no other 
intention than to sell them; he was in the past a confectioner, 
and he followed the example of Bravard in making these collections 
when he comprehended the possibility of earning a fortune with 
the same. . . . The fame of the discoveries of fossil bones 
made by Boucher de Perthes in France has acquainted Seguin with 
the great value that they might acquire. He tried to augment, 
for this reason, the effect of his new collection, bringing his fossil 
bones to Paris and including with them the first examples of fossil 
man of the pampa. " 

In 1879, in the third volume of his Physical Description of the 
Argentine, Burmeister returns once more to the subject in the 
following words : 

"The fossil bones described by Gervais [Jour, de Zoologie, u, 
232] have been found in a deposit of gravel on the banks of the 
Rio Carcarana, north of Rosario, at a place where excavations 
were made for a bridge of the Central Railroad. I have received 
from the same locality, through the kindness of the engineer charged 
with the construction of the bridge, a very numerous collection of 
bones from the same gravel, but without any human remains. 
The collection comprises a large quantity of bones of deer, all of 
a very fresh aspect and well conserved; and, as these animals belong 
to the superior level of the diluvial formation, ... I can 
not concede to the human bones that came from the same layer any 
greater antiquity. It is true that there are also bones of more 
ancient species, but these are rare in comparison with the numerous 
fragments from more modern animals and their origin is problem- 
atic. I have received from excavations made in the same layer 
a fragment of a skull of Typotherium from a very young individual 
and as this species is evidently from the diluvial deposit and very 
rare in this gravel, I am disposed to believe that it had been trans- 



hedliCka] SKELETAL REMAINS OF EARLY MAN 189 

ported from a more ancient stratum by running water, which 
deposited the entire layer of gravel. The same remark may be 
applied to the bones of the TJrsus honseriensis, which Seguin, the 
same who made the fortunate discovery of the human bones, found 
mingled with the latter; as there were found only very few 
fragments of the bones of the bear, I prefer to believe that they 
were not in their primitive position, but that they were detached 
from another more ancient stratum. ... I prefer to believe 
that these bones [those of the fossil bear and the Typoiherium] 
came from another deposit and were transported by the cur- 
rent which formed the gravel, and which mingled the bones 
of animals of more ancient formation with those of man which 
belonged to one more recent. My opinion is strengthened by 
the presence of objects worked by the hand of man found by 
Seguin in the same gravel. These objects are entirely similar to 
analogous objects worked by the Indians existing before the Con- 
quest. The bones and the debris of examples of ancient Indian manu- 
facture have probably been washed out from an ancient Indian tomb 
by modern currents of fresh water, and I do not see, after having 
ascertained their complete resemblance to similar objects found in 
the cemeteries and tombs from the period before the Conquest, 
any cause for attributing to them any greater antiquity." 

An entirely different view of the subject, however, is taken two 
years later by Ameghino, 1 who saw the bones in Paris. He has 
nothing at all to say as to their anatomic features, nor was any 
chemical examination made to determine their "fossility," but he 
endeavors to sustain and to define their antiquity. 

He states that, owing to Seguin' s death, the exact location of the 
find was never ascertained; it was "on the borders of the Rio Car- 
carana, a few leagues from its mouth." A manuscript catalogue of 
the collection, at the Paris Museum, contained the following data: 

"Human bones collected near the Rio Carcarana, in the same soil 
as the bones of various fossil animals (horse, bear, etc.), which appear 
contemporaneous with the latter; parts of the skeletons of four indi- 
viduals; portions of upper and lower jaws, with teeth; various por- 
tions of skulls; 32 isolated teeth; various parts of the vertebrae, 
ribs, bones of the limbs (long bones and phalanges), etc. 

"Also a large number of fragments of bones still enveloped in 
matrix (gangue) , analogous in character to that which contains bones 
of various fossil animals. 

"Knives and other cutting instruments, manufactured in ancient 
times by man, and discovered in the same deposits in which were 
found the above-mentioned bones, as well as those of various other 
animals." 

i See La antigiiedad, etc., n, 1881, p. 514 et seq. 



190 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

The examination of the specimens showed Ameghino that the 
stone implements had "suffered absolutely no alteration of surface/' 
and that they were "very well made, approaching, particularly in 
one case, recent forms." From this, and from the nature of the 
material of which three of the four implements are made (i. e., 
quartzite, the source of which is in the Sierra Tandil, 120 leagues 
distant) , Ameghino deduced that ' ' the stone implements brought by 
Seguin to Europe must have been encountered within the limits 
of the Province of Buenos Aires, and they proceed, without doubt, 
from the black earth of the surface. This, however, does not neces- 
sarily impugn Seguin' s honesty; he was only mistaken. The worked 
stones may have tumbled from the superficial layer and have been 
transported onto Pampean deposits, where they were collected. . . . 
But the same thing did not happen with the bones. . . . Seguin, 
who collected fossils for 20 years, could hardly have committed such 
an error." 

The bones, Ameghino continues, show different colors ; many of them 
are in part or wholly bleached, indicating partial or complete exposure 
above ground. Some are still enveloped by the earth. On the 
banks of the Carcarana there are distinguishable only two entirely dif- 
ferent strata, the thin, black, superficial, vegetal (40-60 cm.), and 
the reddish Pampean argillaceous sediments underneath. The Seguin 
specimens show the yellowish color, which proves that they were 
derived from the Pampean deposits. Some of the bones are light, 
fragile — they lay in ground without carbonates or silicates; others are 
considerably heavier — they, though in the same terrane, became infil- 
trated with carbonate of lime; and others show in part one, in part 
the other, of these characteristics. The earth that still partly 
envelops some of the specimens is the Pampean sandy clay, and the 
same is found in their medullary as well as in their interstitial cavi- 
ties. In some cases the adhering earth is hardened to tosca. "The 
presence of tosca, which adheres strongly to the bones, and which 
also fills all the cavities, constitutes itself an incontrovertible proof 
of the antiquity of these bones and of their contemporaneity with 
the great edentates of the Pampean formation." (P. 523.) 

The bones of the fossil bear present, Ameghino says, the same 
characteristics as those of man. The surface of many of the human 
skeletal parts show a number of impressions which were recognized 
as due to gnawing by extinct animals (?) belonging to the genera 
Hesperomys and Reiihrodon; and the bones of the bear show similar 
marks caused by gnawing. "It is evident that the Eesperomys and 
the Reithrodon have gnawed only fresh bones, a condition from which 
it is concluded that the man and the bear who left the osseous remains 
in this locality were not only geologically contemporaneous, but fur- 
thermore that they died within a very short interval of each other, 
if not at the same moment." (P. 524.) 



hedliCka] SKELETAL REMAINS OF EARLY MAN" 191 

"The human bones encountered by Seguin in the Province of 
Santa Fe are as fossil as the skeletons of the glyptodons, taxodons, 
and mylodons, which are to-day being exhibited in the principal 
museums of the world." (Pp. 524-525.) 

The author then proceeds to establish the horjzon of the Pampean 
formation in which the bones lay. His decision is that they came 
from the reddish Superior Pampean and belong to the same geologic 
horizon, slightly more or less, as the human bones found at the 
Arroyo Frias, near Mercedes. 

In the same general neighborhood from which the Seguin collec- 
tion came were found a number of other species of fossil animals, 
hence "the man whose remains Seguin encountered was contem- 
poraneous with five genera and seven species of extinct mammals, 
namely, the Arctotherium oons&riensis, the Hydrochmrus magnus, the 
Mastodon, an equid, the Megatherium americanum, the Lestodon tri- 
gonidens, and the Euryurus rudis." (P. 526.) It would appear evi- 
dent from the above that Seguin' s death and his withholding the 
information as to the exact locality of the find, did not matter much 
after all. 

Roth, who occupies himself briefly with the Seguin collection in 
his letter to Kollmann (1889), brings forth no facts touching directly 
on the human bones sold by Seguin, but questions the opinion of 
Burmeister that the bones came from a gravel deposit. He says: 1 

"The opinion of Doctor Burmeister concerning the find of Seguin, 
given on page 42 in the third volume of the Physical Description of 
the Argentine Republic, is not justified. Burmeister believes that 
the bones of the fossil bear may have been removed by water from a 
more ancient stratum and then deposited with human bones in a layer 
of gravel. It is not likely that the water has torn from the hard loess 
a certain number of the bones of the bear {Arctotherium) to transport 
them into another place and there unite them; besides which, in the 
region cited, the borders of the Carcarafia, there does not exist any 
layer of gravel. I know perfectly the place where the railroad from 
Rosario to Cordoba crosses the Carcarafia. The banks consist of loess 
belonging to the Intermediary Pampean formation. Above there 
exists a thin layer of humus and down below, in the bed of the 
stream itself, there are found from place to place deposits of an 
altogether insignificant extent of mud and of triturated calcareous 
concretions. Had Seguin, instead of finding the human bones in the 
loess gathered them in these deposits, everyone who knows Pampean 
fossils would have seen at once that the debris did not come from 
the Pampean formation; but if these bones were really discovered 
in the loess traversed by the foundations of the bridge, they belong 
to the Intermediary Pampean strata. ~. . . Consequently, 

1 Ueber den Schadel von Pontimelo (richtiger Fontezuelas); in Mitth. anat. inst. Vesalianum zu 
Basel, 1889, p. 2. 



192 BTJBEAU OP AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

without leaving place for any doubt, the human remains found on the 
borders of the Carcarana are fossil and are derived at the least from the 
yellow loess, and it may also well be that they come from the Inter- 
mediary Pampean formation (brown loess)." 

Finally Lehmann-Nitsche (1909), notwithstanding the facts that he 
has not seen the material and that he knew of the objection to the 
theory of antiquity of the Seguin specimens by Moreno andBurmeister, 
declares that "the fossil nature of the human debris from the banks 
of the Carcarana can not be questioned." 

And further on (p. 213) lie says, following his quotation of Roth's 
above-given remarks: "Consequently, without leaving place for any 
doubt, the human remains from the border of Carcarana are fossil 
and come at least from the yellow loess, and it may well be possible 
that they proceed from even the Intermediary Pampean (the brown 
loess.) " In an even more recent publication * this author still con- 
siders the Carcarana bones as belonging to the Superior Pampean. 

Critical Remarks 

The foregoing details are given because they relate to the first alleged 
discovery of ancient man in Argentina and also because this case is 
typical of practically the whole line of subsequent reports on the 
subject of early man in that country, as regards the defective nature 
of the basal facts, the frequently arbitrary treatment of the evidence 
that exists, and the strained reasoning indulged in on the basis of 
this evidence. 

The actual facts of the Carcarana evidence may be critically 
resumed as follows: 

1. The geographic data concerning the Carcarana find are unsatis- 
factory, not precise enough for a case of any importance. 

2. Direct geologic data are entirely wanting and the circumstantial 
evidence is inconclusive. 

3. The bones were gathered by a nonscientific collector, whose 
discrimination regarding the essential details of the discovery at best 
would be open to doubt. The further fact that the presence of fossil 
human remains, in the knowledge of the collector would heighten the 
value or facilitate the sale of the collection of animal bones can not 
be disregarded in the case of one who collected only to sell. 

4. The quantity of human bones, with the statement in the cata- 
logue of the collection that they were parts of four skeletons, points to 
the probability that the remains were derived from either several con- 
tiguous burials, or from a common secondary grave of a number of 
individuals; such graves were quite common in recent times farther 
south in Argentina. The facts that the bones were in fragments or 

1 Lehmann-Nitsche, R., El hombre f6sil pampeano; in Bol. Ofic. Nac. Est., La Paz, Bolivia, "VI, 1910, 
pp. 363-366. 



hrdliCka] SKELETAL REMAIN'S OF EARLY MAN 193 

slivers, that they represented nearly all the parts of the human frame, 
and yet comprised only small portions of the skeletons, indicate expo- 
sure of the bones, their fragmentation due to exposure, and perhaps 
other agencies, and either their removal from the original site, which 
could have been effected by running water, or the removal of the 
many missing parts, probably by the same agency. A possible 
alternative agency would be some great local disturbance, hard to be 
imagined, causing the fragmentation and the removal from situ of 
many of the broken parts of the skeletons. 

5. Some of the bones were seen still embedded in, and others with 
the cavities filled by, Pampean loess, which in some instances was 
hardened to tosca. The presence of neither of these materials can 
be considered as proof of antiquity of the skeletal parts. Bones 
buried primarily or secondarily in loess (they could not well be 
buried elsewhere in the regions in question), on the disappearance of 
the marrow, especially if the bones be broken, become surrounded 
and filled with the material in which they lie, whatever may be its age. 
They may become thus filled and surrounded even if lying in, and 
especially at the edge of, a mixed deposit of loess and gravel. How- 
ever, the relation of the bones in this case to gravel is entirely uncer- 
tain, and speculations on the point would be vain. Finally, if the 
loess carried moisture and lime salts, as it generally does in eastern 
Argentina, on drying some of it would turn to more or less compact 
cement, which would adhere to the bones. This would not be real 
tosca, such as exists already concreted within the loess, though this 
circumstance is not of great importance. 

6. The bones of fossil animals found with the human bones are 
nowhere referred to as skeletons, or even as the larger undisturbed 
parts of the skeletons, of these animals. They were, it is plain, not 
such, or the fact would surely have been mentioned ; and if only isolated 
parts, they could easily have been removed from their original resting 
place by torrential waters and deposited in contact with the human 
bones. 

7. The "fossilization" of the human bones has been estimated 
without actual tests, leaving the subject in uncertainty. But 
even real mineralization, as mentioned in other parts of this report, 
is more a criterion of conditions than of age. 

8. The implements stated explicitly by Seguin to have been found 
with the bones are such as were used by the Indians of other parts of 
the Province of Buenos Aires. No. 1 is not only identical in form 
with that found by Ameghino in the superficial layer at Lujan, but 
also with several brought by the writer from the coast of the Province. 

9. The marks on the bones may well have been made by rodents, 
for markings of such origin are very common in Argentina, but it can 

21535°— Bull. 52—12 13 



194 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

not be accepted as proven that they could have been made only by 
certain species of ancient rodents. 

10. The contemporaneity of bones of fossil animals found in the 
same general region with the human bones under consideration lacks 
substantiation. 

11. Finally, morphologically the Seguin human bones offer, so far 
as shown, nothing indicating primitiveness of form or great age. 

On the basis of the above facts the inevitable conclusion is that the 
Carcarana human remains should cease to be cited as representing a 
South American man of geologic antiquity. 

THE ANCIENT PATAGONIANS 
History and Observations on the Specimens 

At the meeting of the Anthropological Society of Paris, July 1, 
1880, Francisco Moreno, read a communication on "Two prehis- 
toric skulls brought from the Rio Negro." * This report marks the 
beginning of the written history of the so-called fossil Patagonian 
crania. 

Sr. Moreno's communication was as follows: 

"The two skulls come from the ancient cemeteries of the Rio 
Negro. They are representatives of races anterior to the Spanish 
conquest and already extinct before that time. 

"The calva, which presents pathologic features, was exhumed by 
me from a layer of sandy, yellowish clay, which forms the ancient 
alluvia of the Rio Negro and appears altogether similar to the Qua- 
ternary loam of the pampas. This layer is not continuous, but occurs 
in knolls (mamelons) or ridges, which resemble old and but slightly 
elevated islands or banks of an ancient delta. Near this skull I found 
no bones of extinct animals, but, at the distance of some hundreds 
of meters, I came across a few fragments of the carapace of a glypto- 
don, which presented the same external appearances as the human 
skull. The color and the condition of the latter are quite the same 
as in the majority of Quaternary remains. 

"The second skull is more modern but still very ancient; I extracted 
it from the ancient dunes, formerly mobile but now fixed, which in 
the past lined the islands of the old stream at its former mouth near 
Carmen. The first skull lay at a depth of nearly 4 meters, the second 
at 2 meters, [ 2 ] in the sand. The latter specimen is deformed in the 
Aymara fashion and shows some scraping below the parietal. 

i Moreno, F. P., Sur deux cranes prehistoriques de Rio-Negro; in Bull, rapportes Soc.d'Anthr., Paris, 3™ 
s6r., m, 1880, pp. 490-497. 

[ 2 In answer to the question by Hamy as to the exact nature of the deposits in which this second skull was 
found, Moreno states in another part of the paper (p. 495) that the deposits are "ancient dunes, now solidi- 
fied [this should be understood to mean settled, fixed, not solidified like stone. — A. H.], close to the ancient 
islands of the Rio Negro. The skull was found at a depth of 10 feet, in violet sand." There must be an 
error in one of these figures.] 



hedliCka] SKELETAL REMAINS OP EARLY MAN 195 

"The two skulls are not the representatives of the two races which, 
in former times, inhabited the region of the Rio Negro near the ocean. 

" In the ancient cemeteries * are found several cranial forms. The 
most ancient is that represented by the above-mentioned calva. 
This race lived, I believe, in the glacial time of Patagonia, which 
however, is more recent than the glacial epoch of Europe. 

"Afterward (but not very long after, I believe), there comes a race, 
Neanderthaloid in type, very similar to the Botocudo. . . . 
The skulls of this race are interred in the ancient dunes. 

"Still later there appears a cranial type with marked prognathism, 
and with the posterior or occipital part of the skull rounded instead 
of being very elongated. . . . There are normal as well as 
deformed (fronto-parietal compression) crania. 

' ' The type known under the name of Aymara is seen afterward (of 
this I have found more than 100 skulls); the specimens belonging to 
this type are all blackish. It is difficult to say whether this is con- 
temporaneous with or slightly subsequent to the just-mentioned flat- 
heads, of which one can see about 50 representatives in the Archeo- 
logical Museum of Buenos Aires. 

"The most modern types in the valley and those which are perpet- 
uated to this day, are those of the pampas, and the Patagonians or 
Tehuelches, with brachycephalic skulls that are generally deformed 
by flattening of the occiput. Some of the crania of these races are 
found painted red." 

The foregoing report of Senor Moreno occasioned considerable 
discussion. 

Mm. Bordier, Bertillon, and Broca considered the lesion of the first- 
mentioned skull evidently syphilitic. 

Topinard remarked that the specimens ' ' are the most authentically 
ancient skulls which we know from America. . . . Both come 
from the alluvia of glacial origin, of the Rio Negro ; it is understood, 
however, that the term 'glacial' does not signify anything analogous 
in that country to the glacial epoch in Europe. We are still ignorant 
of even the rudiments of the chronology of the terranes and the 
faunae of the Argentine Republic and Patagonia. Nevertheless, there 
is some reason to believe that the alluvia, the 'river beds' of the 
English, possess in these countries considerable antiquity and ante- 
date by at least some thousands of years the Christian era." Both 
of the skulls "are artificially deformed, and one, especially, presents 
the classical, elongated, cylindric, low deformation, with its two char- 
acteristic, frontal and postbregmatic, depressions, known under the 
term Aymara. . . . 

"The other skull, found by M. Moreno 15 feet beneath the surface, 
is also deformed but the type of the shaping is different. It is not the 

1 The author speaks only of those in the valley of the Rio Negro. 



196 BUREAU OE AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

ordinary Aymara type, but a frontal deformation inclining gradually 
from the lowest part of the front to the vertex, similar to the Toulou- 
sian deformation recently presented before you by M. Broca. Some 
one remarked a while ago that this skull shows Neanderthaloid char- 
acters; this is an error, it is deformed. " 

Hamy said the black skull recalls, trait for trait, the crania of the 
Aymara. 

Finally, Broca expressed the opinion that "it is necessary to be 
reserved in regard to the geologic chronology of America in general 
and especially that of South America. ... Notwithstanding 
this, it would be of great interest to know to what epoch the deformed 
skull of which Hamy has just spoken and the form of which appears 
to me characteristic, belongs." 

Critical Remarks 

The foregoing citations include about all the information extant 
relating to the Rio Negro "fossil" crania. Nothing further con- 
cerning the specimens was published by Moreno. 

Nearly 10 years later the finds under consideration were mentioned 
by Ameghino, 1 who, however, attached to them but little importance. 
In his work on the fossil mammals of Argentina he refers to them as 
follows : 

"It seems that sites belonging to this epoch (Mesolithic) exist also 
at the southern extremity of the Province, in the valley of the Rio 
Negro, and the famous 'fossil' skull Moreno referred to in the Bulle- 
tin of the Anthropological Society of Paris came probably from one of 
these. Moreno said that he found the skull in a deposit of Pampean 
loam (arcilla pampeana) in the valley of that river, and that he also 
obtained from the same some scales of the carapace of a glyptodon. 
But, there exist no vestiges of Pampean terrane in the entire lower 
course of the Bio Negro, nor has there ever been encountered, to my 
knowledge, the smallest fragment of a carapace of a glyptodon. The skull 
in question shows by its fossilization that it belongs without doubt to 
a very remote epoch, but the general state of the bone and calcareous 
incrustation which it presents on its endocraneon surface, together 
with its texture and ashy color, locate it conclusively among objects 
derived from the Post-Pampean, and in all probability its antiquity, 
if greatest, may reach the Mesolithic epoch." 

Lehmann-Nitsche, in his work on the Fossil Man of Argentina, 
makes no mention of the skulls under consideration and does not 
even refer to them in his bibliography, evidence that he does not con- 
sider the specimens as having any relation to the Pampean deposits. 

The writer himself has not seen the skulls and can not speak of them 
at first hand, but Sefior Moreno, now a member of the Chamber of 

1 Ameghino, F., Contribuci6n al conocimiento de los mamiferos ftisiles de la Republica Argentina; in 
Adas de la Academia National de Ciencias de Cdrdoba, vi, Buenos Aires, 1889, p. 52. 



hbdliCka] SKELETAL REMAINS OP EARLY MAN" 197 

Deputies and one of the most deserving men of Argentina, does not 
regard them, judging by expressions conveyed in conversations with 
him, as of great antiquity. The writer's visit to the valley of the 
Rio Negro resulted in confirmed skepticism as to any considerable 
age of any of the remains from that region. The present low, broad, 
flat, alluvial valley of the lower course of the river is evidently of 
recent formation; it is subject to occasional great inundations and 
in all probability its superficial deposits have been repeatedly dis- 
turbed or even wholly rearranged. 

The incomplete condition of the two crania under consideration 
and their isolated position indicate a reinterment. The depth at 
which they were found, in the unstable deposits of a powerful river, 
is a factor of but little chronologic value. The artificial deforma- 
tions of the crania are evidently only varieties of one form, the 
Aymara, and connect them with the native group which occupied the 
region and practiced similar deformations up to historic times. 1 The 
alterations in color and other marks of mineralization of the speci- 
mens distinguish them but slightly from those of the shallow burials 
in mud at the Laguna de Juncal, south of Viedma. Numerous skulls 
and bones from the latter place were collected by the writer and are 
mentioned in some detail in another part of this paper (see p. 298). 

The unstable nature of the deposits of the Rio Negro and the great 
power of the river in periods of flood, were well illustrated during its 
last great inundation, somewhat more than 10 years ago. The 
waters destroyed the town of Viedma, washed out and carried away 
bodies from cemeteries, and caused many changes in the surface of 
the valley. 

In view of the facts presented above, it seems that the two "fossil" 
Patagonian skulls have no solid claims to geologic antiquity, the 
probability being strong that these crania belonged to relatively 
recent Indian occupants of the region. 

THE ARROYO DE FRIAS FINDS 

HISTORICAL NOTES AND PREVIOUS OBSERVATIONS 

In 1875 F. Ameghino reports the second find of fossil human bones 
in Argentina. 2 He says: 

"In the small brook of Frias, on the outskirts of Mercedes, at the 
distance of 20 leagues from Buenos Aires, I found numerous fossil 
human bones, which lay at a depth of 4 meters in undisturbed Quater- 
nary terrane. I found some of these in the presence of Prof. G. Ra- 
morino and of many other persons, mingled with a great quantity of 
charcoal, baked earth, burned and striated stones, arrow points, flint 

1 Compare chapter on Homo pampseus, p. 289. 

2 In his Notas sobre algunos fdsiles nuevos encontrados en la formacion painpeana, Mercedes, 1875, and 
in the Journal deZoologie, Paris, 1875, pp. 527-528. 



198 BUBEAU OF AMEBICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

chisels and knives; and there were also a large quantity of bones 
belonging to about 15 species of mammals, in a large part extinct, 
such as Hoplophorus ornatus (Burm.), Hoplophorus Burmeisteri (Nob.), 
Lagostomus angustidens (Burm.), Canis protalopex (Lund), Eutatus 
Seguini (Gerv.), and Triodon mercedensis (Nob.)." 

In 1881, in the second volume of his La Antigiiedad del Hombre 
en El Plata (pp. 377-380), Ameghino speaks again of the discovery. 
He says, "In February, 1872, in the vicinity of Mercedes, I came 
across fragments of the carapace of a glyptodon, piled up by human 
hands, while at the same time I found on many fossil bones of animals 
signs of percussion, lines, grooves, and incisions, evidently produced 
by the hand of man. 

"Toward the end of the same year I discovered on the banks of 
the Arroyo de Frias the first human fossil bones, accompanied with 
worked stones, bones of extinct animals, and other objects." 

In 1874 Ameghino stated that he tried to interest Burmeister in 
his find of "fossil " human bones but without success. Somewhat later 
in the year, however, he was accompanied to the place of the discov- 
ery by Prof. Ramorino, "and, in his presence, continued the exca- 
vations at the Arroyo de Frias. We found some fragments of tierra 
codda [baked earth], many pieces of charcoal, one vertebra, and one 
scaphoid bone of man, mixed with numerous fragments of the cara- 
pace of glyptodon, etc." 

The discovery of the Argentine fossil man was soon afterward 
announced in a number of the Buenos Aires daily journals. 

In 1875 the specimens in his possession relating to man's antiquity 
were exhibited by Ameghino at the Scientific Exposition of the 
Sociedad Cientifica Argentina, and the society honored the exhibitor 
with a diploma, one express object of which was to act as "a powerful 
stimulus for the continuation of these investigations." 

In 1878 Ameghino presented to the same society a memoir bearing 
the title "El hombre cuarternario en la Pampa." This memoir was 
not accepted by the society for publication, some of the reasons for 
the refusal being as follows : 1 

"The problem which Senor Ameghino assumes to have solved is of 
considerable importance and can not be passed over lightly. 

"Other analogous discoveries did not give the results which their 
authors anticipated. 

"For this reason, and on account of the nature of the terrane in 
which the author of the memoir has made his investigations, and 
which was visited by one of our number, we are of the opinion that 
the problem can not be considered as solved until there shall be made 
a thorough prolonged study of the objects that were encountered." 

i Ameghino, F., La antigiiedad, etc., n, 1881, p. 397. 



hrdliCka] 



SKELETAL REMAINS OF EARLY MAN 



199 



In a discussion concerning the memoir before the society 1 the 
secretary, Sefior Zeballos, stated in reply to some objections, that 
the committee acted as it did in refusing the memoir because "its 
author had committed a fundamental error, attributing a very 
remote age to objects which were hardly three or four centuries old, 
and had declared fossil that which is contemporaneous with the 
modern alluvia." 

In 1878, after much further discussion of the subject, and a second 
failure of the Argentine Scientific Society to publish the resubmitted 




Fig. 44. Transverse section of the stream Frias, demonstrating the geologic constitution of the strata 
at the point where the fossil man of Mercedes was found, together with a plan of the excavation made in 
exhuming the remains. 

1. The water-level; 

2. A thin layer of gravel found in excavating on the right side of the stream — material deposited by the 
stream which it had washed from more elevated portions of its bed; 

3. A layer of vegetal mold 10 cm. in thickness, which contains numerous bones of domestic animals 
introduced into the country since its occupation by Europeans; 

4. A stratum 40 cm. in thickness, containing the bones of animals indigenous to the country; 

5. A very clayey stratum 20 cm. in thickness, containing the bones of extinct species of animals but in 
a poor state of preservation; 

6. A marly layer 30 cm. in thickness, in which the bones of the great extinct mammals, Mylodon, Glyp- 
todon, etc., are found; 

7. A layer 60 cm. in thickness, not nearly so marly as the preceding; also contains remains of extinct 
animals; 

8. A layer 55 cm. in thickness, of a reddish color, composed exclusively of fine sand and clay mixed 
together; 

9. Stratum which contained the human bones. 

Stratum No. 9, which is more than 1.5 m. in thickness, is distinguished from the preceding only in 
that it contains a larger proportion of clay. In this layer of Pampean soil, at the base of the excavation 
Indicated in the diagram and at a lower level than the bed of the stream human bones were discovered, 
together with rudely-shaped flints, apparently used in extracting the marrow from bones, a perforated 
femur of Eutatus, bones with incised, and some of radiate, markings and stria?, fragments of burnt bones, 
fragments of burnt or baked earth, and a great quantity of charred vegetal substances. In the same 
deposit, mingled with the objects mentioned, were found also a great many bones of animals, which indi- 
cated the following species: [Here are named 12 genera and species of mammals and an ostrich.] 

memoir, 2 Ameghino carried his collections to Europe and exhibited 
them at the Universal Exposition in Paris. The same year he sent 
also a note regarding the find, accompanied with a sketch showing 
the strata at the Arroyo de Frias, to the American Naturalist? 

1 In Anales de la Sociedad Cientiflca Argentina, h, 1S76; Ameghino, F., La antigiiedad, etc., n, p. 399. 

2 See Ameghino, F., ibid., p. 400 et seq. 

3 Vol. xn, 1878, pp. 827-829. 



200 BUBEAIT OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

The illustration is here reproduced (fig. 44) and the notes accompa- 
nying it are given in a slightly altered form. 

The next notices concerning the Arroyo de Frias discovery are both 
from Ameghino and appeared in two publications in 1879. 1 The 
statements are again unsatisfactory as to essential details. In the 
first of the publications (Compte-rendu, etc., p. 219), the note reads 
as follows: 

[Human bones from the epoch of the fossil edentates of Argentina], 
"although few in number, have been exhumed from the banks of 
the small Arroyo de Frias near Mercedes, where they were interred 
at a depth of more than 3 m. in disturbed soil mixed with the debris 
of glyptodon." 2 

On page 226 of the same publication occurs the following: 

"Almost at the lowest part of the bed of the arroyo and in its left 
bank I found a large quantity of fragments of the carapace of the 
Iloplophorus ; in extracting these I came to the stratum No. 7, 3 in 
which I gathered human bones mixed with those of several extinct 
animals and with vestiges of human industry. 

"Thereupon I excavated a deep trench, which traversed all the 
strata in their natural lay and which I carried to 1.50 m. below the 
level of the bed of the arroyo. Down to this depth I continued to 
find the following objects: Human bones, worked stones, implements, 
fragments of burned bones, bones perforated, incised, grooved and 
striated, bak«d earth, and a great quantity of charcoal." 

On page 227 Ameghino adds, after enumerating the bones of many 
fossil animals found during the same excavation: 

"Some of these species were represented by entire skeletons with all 
their bones in undisturbed relation, a condition which demonstrates 
that the soil which inclosed them has not been moved and that they 
were enveloped by the earth at the same time as were the human 
bones and the worked objects. These last consisted of a small flint 
arrow point, another arrow point, more crude, and two flints show- 
ing beveling, with a perforated femur of the Eutatus, and an edged 
lamina from the tooth of a Toxodon." 

In his article in the Revue d' Anthropologie (1879) 4 Ameghino adds 
nothing concerning the Arroyo de Frias find to what is said above, 
the two accounts being practically the same. In regard to the 
Arroyo de Frias bones he adds that they were in the same state of 

1 Ameghino, F., La plus haute antiquite de l'homme dans le Nouveau-Monde; in Compte-rendu de la 
troisi&me session de Congris International des Amtricanistes, Bruxelles, 1879, pp. 198-250. Also L'homme 
prehistorique dans la Plata; in Revue d' Anthropologic, 2™= ser., n, Paris, 1879, pp. 210-249. 

2 In the same paragraph Ameghino says, "other fossil human bones have been found mixed with the 
debris of Megatherium and of the Great Ursid, called Arctotherium bonseriensis, on the borders of the river 
Carcarafia." This can refer only to the Seguin find, in which, however, the bones were those of the great 
fossil bear and a horse, but not of the Megatherium. 

3 No. 9 of fig. 44. 

4 Vol. nr, Paris, 1880, pp. 1-12. 



hrdliCka] SKELETAL REMAINS OF EARLY MAN 201 

preservation and of the same color as the bones of the fossil animals, 
and that their internal parts were filled with the same Pampean 
earth which forms the stratum in which they lay. 

At the end of the later article (1880) are notes by P. Broca on the 
bones themselves, which read as follows: 

"1. A portion of an iliac bone from the left side, belonging to an 
aged woman of very small stature ; the border of the cotyloid cavity 
shows traces of dry arthritis. 

il 2. Four vertebrae more or less entire and three or four fragments 
without form. The former are the sixth and seventh cervical, with 
bifurcated spinous processes, and the first and second dorsals. They 
belong manifestly to the same subject of very small stature and 
present about their superior and inferior surfaces traces of patho- 
logical ossification referable to senile alteration, which in the articu- 
lation of the limbs one would qualify as dry arthritis or chronic 
rheumatism. 

"3. Dozen ribs or fragments of ribs from one subject, again of 
small stature. One of the entire ribs presents on its inferior border 
an enlargement, which would make one believe that it belonged to 
another subject, if a similar condition in slighter degree did not exist 
on another rib ; it is the result of senile hyperostosis of the same kind 
as that presented by the vertebrae. 

u 4. One scaphoid bone from the foot and one metatarsal. This 
is the smallest human scaphoid that one can imagine; the major 
dimension of its articular fossa does not measure more than 26 mm. 

u 5. Seven metacarpals, some of them deformed and showing at 
their extremities traces of dry arthritis. One, the metacarpal of the 
left thumb, is 38 mm. long. 

u 6. Eight phalanges of the hand. 

"7. Head of a radius, very small. 

"8. One tooth, probably a median upper incisor, of which the root 
is disfigured by an abundant deposit of cement, and the crown much 
beveled by use. 

"From the above it is possible to conclude legitimately that all 
these bones belonged to a very old woman affected by senile altera- 
tions of the skeleton, one whose stature descended surely below 
1.50 m." 

In this publication (p. 11) Ameghino further states his belief that 
the strata which yielded the human bones are not Quaternary but 
Tertiary. 

In his Antiquity of Man in Argentina 1 Ameghino occupies himself 
again with the finds of the Arroyo de Frias, more at length than in 
any preceding publication. But most of what is said 2 merely repeats 

1 La antigiiedad, etc., n, pp. 483-511. 

2 Of this it will be possible to give here only a small part; for the rest the reader is referred to the original. 



202 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

previously made assertions and supplements the arguments for the 
antiquity of the human bones. 

The first interesting detail mentioned (pp. 486-489) is that relating 
to the presence of a large quantity of charcoal, found with and above 
the human bones. This charcoal extended from the top of stratum 
numbered 9 by Ameghino, slightly more than 6 feet (2.15 meters) 
from the surface, downward to the bottom of the excavation. The 
quantity increased with the depth of the excavation. And u on pen- 
etrating into the layer No. 9," Ameghino proceeds, "I encountered, 
mingled with the carbon and the bones of different animals, various 
human bones. Evidently I have come across the remains of the 
fossil man of Argentina; the man whose existence has already been 
revealed to me by striated bones and worked stones. 
"The human bones in layer 9 were mingled with bones of different 
animals, worked flint, fragments of burnt bones, bones broken or 
perforated, others with incisions, etc., baked earth, and char- 
coal. . . . The vegetable carbon was so abundant that I cal- 
culated it to constitute at this point a fourth part of the total 
mass of stratum No. 9." 

The carbon held, besides the human and broken animal bones, a 
quantity of fragments of ostrich eggs and some fragments of baked 
earth, also a piece of a burned scale of Hoplopliorus. Ameghino 
especially advances this association as evidence of contemporaneity 
of man with that animal: "This fragment is of exceptional impor- 
tance and offers irrefutable proof of the coexistence of man with the 
Hoplo'phorus" 

The stone implements found in the same mass showed also traces 
of the action of fire. As to the nature of these worked stones, one 
is a quartzite implement of dark-yellow color, worked crudely on one 
surface only. The second specimen is a leaf or flake of "silex, " 
prismatic in section; its inferior surface is smooth and concave. 
The third specimen is a small point of "silex," prismatic in section; 
its inferior surface is smooth and concave; it served probably as an 
arrow point. The fourth is equally of "silex;" judging by the 
illustration, this resembles a scraper; it is worked on one surface 
only. 

The human bones (p. 496) "were fotind at the mean depth of 3 m. ; 
of this only 50 cm., represented by layers Nos. 3 and 4, belong to the 
vegetal soil." . . . 

"The soil could not have been moved [p. 498], because I did not 
obtain these bones on the surface of the ground, but interred at a con- 
siderable depth and at a lower level even than that of the bed of the 
Arroyo." 

The fossil man of Mercedes, according to Ameghino, could not 
have been buried where he was found, because (p. 499), "If these 



hedliCka] SKELETAL REMAINS OF EARLY MAN 203 

were the remains of a skeleton buried in a recent epoch, the bones 
would not be found isolated, and scattered over a large sur- 
face." 

The human bones are said to have lost completely all their organic 
material and are described as lustrous over a large part of their sur- 
faces, as light, porous, and fragile, and adhering strongly to the 
tongue. All these characteristics "denote a most remote antiquity. " 

If the human bones had been from a modern inhumation, Ame- 
ghino argues, there would have been encountered with them bones 
of recent animals. 

Returning once more to the stone implements (p. 501), we read 
that, "As these instruments themselves are more crude than those 
possessed by the Indians anterior to the Conquest, it must be ad- 
mitted that they belong to an anterior epoch. This also proves that 
the human bones belong to a geologic epoch in which the physical 
conditions of the region (comarca) were distinct from those of the 
present day. The level at which the bones were encountered must 
then have been the surface of the ground; otherwise there would not 
remain any other explanation of the find except that of a modern 
burial, which, as already seen, would not accord with the facts; nor 
can it be admitted that savages armed with small fragments of "silex " 
could have done such work for the burial of their dead." 

As to the animal bones found during the same excavation, Ame- 
ghino says (p. 503) : 

"Some animals were represented by nearly complete skeletons, 
but the larger part of the bones of the others were scattered without 
any order, those of the carnivora mingled with those of rodents or 
edentates. The human bones were found mingled and scattered in 
like manner without any order over the whole surface of the base of 
the excavation, more than 30 square meters in extent, which natur- 
ally suggests even a much larger area of dispersion. This is further 
proof that the human bones were interred at the same time as the 
bones of mammals which accompanied them." 

On page 504 the statement is made, notwithstanding the former 
allusions to the great quantities of charcoal, that "the soil in which 
the bones occurred was the same in hardness, composition, and 
aspect as that found at the same level in following the barrancas of 
the arroyq;" from which again it is deduced that the man was con- 
temporaneous with the animals found in these barrancas. 

Later on (pp. 508-509) is mentioned a chemical analysis of the 
bones, but, with the exception of the statement that they are "fossil" 
and that they have "almost completely lost their organic matter" 
(compare with previous statement) , no evidence is furnished that such 
analysis was actually made. In " f ossilization, " color, and other 
characteristics the human bones are said to be exactly the same as 



204 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

those of a HoplopTiorus ornatus from the same excavation; also the 
cavities of both are filled with the same Pampean earth. "If the 
bones had not remained from the beginning interred in this soil this 
phenomenon could not have occurred." 

In 1889 Ameghino published his large work on the fossil mammals 
of Argentina in which also he treats of the "fossil" man, referring, 
among other matters, to the finds at Arroyo de Frias. 1 This refer- 
ence, while brief, contains one or two interesting new points. The 
human bones are classed as belonging to the Superior Pliocene (pp. 
65-66). 

The first note in this work regarding the Arroyo de Frias (p. 50) 
reads as follows: 

"One human site from this epoch [the mesoliihic epoch of the 
Superior Quaternary], quite large in extent, is found near Mercedes 
along the small Arroyo de Frias, approximately 1 league from its 
mouth. The barranca, quite low here, shows: 

"1. A layer of black vegetal earth 10-35 cm. thick; 

"2. A layer of black earth, somewhat ashy, 25-30 cm. in thickness, 
with vestiges of infusoria, small mixture of carbonate of lime, and 
some Ampullarias and Planorbis; 

"3. A layer of whitish soil, quite hard and compact, of some 40 
cm. in thickness, with a strong proportion of lime ; and 

"4. The Pampean soil of yellowish-green color, corresponding to 
the Lujanean stratum. 

"From an exposure of the hard layer No. 3, there appear on the sur- 
face over a stretch of more than 200 meters slivers of long bones parted 
longitudinally for the purpose of extracting the marrow, mingled with 
ashes, carbon, small fragments of nearly unbaked pottery, pestles, 
mortars, polishing stones and fragments of bolas made of diorite, as 
well as crude flakes of quartzite. The bones which I was able to 
determine belonged to three existing species, namely, Auchenia 
guanaco, Cervis campestris, and Rhea americana, mingled with the 
extinct species of Paleolama mesolithica." 

This note is very interesting in showing clearly the tendency of 
Professor Ameghino to attribute too great age to his finds of human 
remains, making them contemporaneous with the deposits in which 
they occur. The antiquity of these deposits, compared with the age 
ascribed to them by other observers, also appears very generally over- 
estimated. Here we have, on the same Arroyo de Frias, near Mer- 
cedes, plainly an extensive site of occupancy of the modern Indian, 
with his pottery, mortars, and even bolas; but because the remains 
do not occur in what is regarded as the only Recent layer and 
exposure, that is the present-day black vegetal layer, they are 
referred to the Quaternary. 

1 Ameghino, F., Contribucion al conocimiento de los mamiferos f6siles de la Republica Argentina, 
Buenos Aires, 1889, pp. 50-65, 66, 83-84. 



hbdliCka] SKELETAL REMAINS OP EARLY MAN 205 

On page 65 of the above-mentioned work we read the following 
about the depth of the bed of the Arroyo de Frias: 

"The Arroyo de Frias runs, as do nearly all the small streams in 
the Bonaerean flats, through a nearly horizontal plain of uniform 
geologic constitution, and its channel varies in depth from 2 m. to 
2 m. 30 cm. . . . 

"Vestiges of the activities of ancient man and human bones are 
encountered in the penultimate layer M at the level of the water of 
the Arroyo and lower in the last layer up to 1 m. below the bed of 
the stream. 

"In 1870 I extracted at this point, on the left margin of the Arroyo, 
a human skull accompanied by a considerable part of the skeleton, 
and many bones of extinct animals. I attached but little importance 
to this find, and the skull was carried to Europe by a collector and 
given to the Museo Civico of Milan, where it is conserved without 
having as yet been described. 

"Three years afterward, in September, 1873, I found at the same 
point additional human remains." Then follows a brief account, 
differing in a few particulars from those given above, of the find of 
the human bones under consideration in this chapter. Besides the 
bones of animals, Ameghino mentions again, as having been found 
with the human bones, "a considerable quantity of fragments of the 
shells of ostrich eggs." 

On page 83 of the same work, finally, after giving some vague recol- 
lections concerning the skull found by him at the Arroyo de Frias in 
1870, Ameghino adds: "Later on, as I have already mentioned, I 
gathered at the same place (en el mismo punto) other fragments, 
which I suppose belonged to the same individual." 2 

Lehmann-Nitsche, in his work on the human remains from the 
Pampean formation, deals with both of the Arroyo de Frias finds. 3 

As to the human remains collected by Ameghino in 1870 and taken 
to the Museo Civico of Milan, we learn that in 1890 Santiago Roth 
visited that institution in order to secure all the information possible 
on the subject, but no one was found who knew anything of the 
specimens, and an Italian, Morselli, who looked for them in the 
museum did not discover any trace of them. 

The bones belonging to the second find, that of 1873, 4 were sub- 
jected anew to minute examination by Lehmann-Nitsche and 
Leboucq, of Gand. The results of these studies are that, while the 

[i Layer No. 8 of fig. 44.] 

2 No details are given as to the position of the skull, though such data would be, it seems, of much impor- 
tance, and, curiously, no mention of this first find is made in the lengthy report on that of 1873 (La 
antigiiedad, etc., n, 1881, p. 483 et seq.). 

3 Lehmann-Nitsche, R., Nouvelles recherches, etc., pp. 213-250. 

4 An erroneous statement is found on p. 215 and again on p. 244 of the Nouvelles recherches, etc. The 
text reads that the bones were found more than 2 meters below the level of the water in the axroyo; this 
does not correspond to any statement by Ameghino. 



206 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

majority of the larger bones were found to belong to the skeleton of an 
old female, one of them, with some of the hand bones and foot bones, 
belonged probably to a second subject, of taller stature. The frag- 
ment of an iliac bone presents certain sexual and other peculiarities, 
but nothing on which any conclusions would be based. As to the ver- 
tebrae, Lehmann-Nitsche "was not able to discover any osteologic 
characteristic which might not be found in the vertebrae of contem- 
poraneous man" (p. 241); and Leboucq makes almost the same 
statement in regard to the bones of the hand and the foot (p. 249) : 
"The prehistoric bones of the hand and the foot collected at the 
Arroyo de Frias present no marked morphologic peculiarity which 
differentiates them from modern bones." The scaphoid, which 
Broca pronounced very small, presents really, according to Leboucq 
(p. 249), medium adult dimensions. The length of the second meta- 
tarsal surpasses the average length of the same bone in females and 
(slightly) even that in males. One of the metacarpals nearly equals 
the general masculine average in length. 

The bones are described by Leboucq (pp. 245-246) as apparently 
thoroughly fossilized but no chemical tests are mentioned. They 
are dirty-gray in color, but the longer of the metacarpals, though 
also seemingly completely fossilized, is, mahogany-brown. 

Finally, in his latest publication on the subject of fossil man in 
Argentina, 1 Lehmann-Nitsche refers the Arroyo de Frias find to the 
Superior Pampean (Quaternary). 

Critical Remarks 

1. The antiquity of the human bones found at the Arroyo de Frias 
can not be accepted as established. It rests on the statements of 
one who at the time the discoveries were made could scarcely be 
regarded as a well-trained and experienced geologist, and is sub- 
stantiated by no published record of any scientific witness, by no 
photograph or detailed drawings made on the spot. 

2. The data and measurements given in the accounts of the find are 
not sufficiently precise; thus the human bones are said in one place 2 
to have come from the depth of 4 meters, while the lowest limit of 
the excavation as given by Ameghino, in his figure and with his own 
measurements, was only 3.40 meters. In another place it is said 3 
that the human remains were interred at a depth of more than 3 
meters; still another statement 4 is to the effect that "The vestiges 
of the ancient existence of man and human bones were encountered 
in the layer before the last, at the level of the water of the arroyo 

1 Lehmann-Nitsche, R., El hombre f6sil pampeano; in Bol. Ofic. Nac. Est., La Paz, Bolivia, vi, 1910, 
pp. 363-366. 

2 Journal de Zoologie, iv, Paris, 1875, pp. 527-528. 

3 Compte-rendu, Sme Congr. Int. Amer., Bruxelles, 1879, p. 219. 

4 Ameghino, F., Contribucidn al conocimiento de los mamiferos f<5siles, etc., 1889, p. 65. 



^hbdlicka] SKELETAL REMAINS OF EARLY MAN 207 

[which Ameghino's illustration shows to have been 1.75 meters from 
the surface. — A. H.] and lower, in the last layer, up to 1 meter below 
the base of the channel," this base corresponding exactly to 3 meters 
from the surface. The discrepancies in the statements are not limited 
to this important item only. 

3. The find was made in the channel of a stream, a fact well calcu- 
lated to Weaken the evidence as to the bearing on antiquity. The 
geologist is well aware of the varied changes to which stream beds 
are liable. The waters, especially at periods of flood, remove, 
mingle, fill, cover, undermine, and cause subsidences or even the 
gouging out of great sections of the banks. The bed of earth in which 
the human bones lay had evidently been considerably disturbed and 
moved. This is indicated by the breaking, dissociation, and disper- 
sion of the human remains, by the absence of many parts of the 
skeleton, and by the presence of the differently-colored bone from 
another body, pointed out by Leboucq. However, some degree of 
association still remained, as a score of separated parts of one skeleton 
and a considerable quantity of charcoal were found together. The 
conditions in general are suggestive of a burial or burials which had 
been disturbed by some such agency as the sinking or sliding of por- 
tions of the bank from pressure or undermining. 1 

4. The burial or burials, the remains of which were found by Doctor 
Ameghino, may have been made, however, in the incline of the bank 
or at its base, or even in the dry bed of the stream, and not in the 
flat surface of the pampa. In Argentina streams of the size of the 
Arroyo de Frias occasionally run dry, and at such time a burial 
might be made without hindrance at or even below the level of the 
bed of the stream, which would possibly offer less resistant ground. 

5. A majority of the stone implements found with the human bones 
are of the same specialized worked-on-one-face-only type so charac- 
teristic of the work of the Indian tribes of Argentina, as shown in 
other sections of this report. 

6. The state of fossilizationof the bones, notwithstanding the numer- 
ous statements on this point by those who handled the specimens, 
has not been accurately determined, so far as can be found from the 
printed data on the subject. The statement that the human bones 
show the same color, consistency, and fossilization as those of extinct 
animals found in the same strata, lacks confirmation by a micro- 
photographic and chemical demonstration. Mere appearances in 
instances of this nature are often deceptive, and can not be taken as 

1 Displacements of masses of earth by this agency are common along all streams running through uncon- 
solidated formations. Instances of this kind in Argentina came more than once under the observation of 
Mr. Willis and the writer. Similar displacements were seen to occur in banks of reddish Pampean even 
far from running water. And the earth does not fall only in sections, but, in banks, also in circumscribed 
masses that leave large, irregular, deep gaps or holes, which offer good opportunities for introduction into 
lower levels of many obiects from higher points |n the surface. 



208 BTJEEAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

definite facts. However, as already shown in other sections of this 
paper, and particularly in the report made by the writer on the human 
bones of reputed geologic age in North America, 1 the state of fossiliza- 
tion of bones, both as to mineralization and loss of organic constitu- 
ents, is so dependent on local conditions as to be of little service in 
determining antiquity. Moreover, as also already discussed, the 
changes in bones are limited in character and extent by the physical 
and chemical agencies present, and are not cumulative beyond a cer- 
tain stage. Hence, in a bone that has reached the limit of the altera- 
tions caused by the conditions of its surroundings, time would bring 
but little further alteration, and old as well as relatively recent bones 
may present quite similar "fossilization." This is observable in 
numerous instances with fossil bones of mammals from different 
epochs. 

7. The value of the association of the bones of extinct animals with 
those of man, as a measure of antiquity is, it is necessary to repeat, 
frequently overestimated. The vital distinction between inhuma- 
tion of the dead practiced by man since the earliest times and the 
natural inclusion of bodies of animals in various sediments is often 
overlooked by the paleontologist. Men dig graves for their dead 
regardless of the contents of the soil so long as these contents do not 
greatly impede their work. In ground rich in remains of extinct 
animals, it is quite probable that the gravedigger removed them and 
then left them in the earth above or near the body in the same man- 
ner as he would tosca, pebbles, or other objects found in the ground. 
It is also possible that some of the fossil bones incidentally became 
broken, cut, or otherwise marked and even burnt, either before 
the burial, or by those who attended to it. The significance of the 
association of fossil animal bones with human bones, even in the cases 
in which the former show effects of man's activity, is entirely problem- 
atic. The enumeration by the paleontologists in this and other 
cases, of long lists of names of extinct animals found with or near the 
the human bones, or in the vicinity, or in the same strata, is impres- 
sive, but alone counts for little as evidence of the age of the remains 
of man found in such relation. The scale of the Hoplophorus found 
with the Arroyo de Frias human remains proves only the action of 
fire, not the mode in which it was burned nor the time or cause of 
the occurrence. 

8. As to perforated, grooved, and broken bones of animals, it should 
be shown in every case that their condition in these respects is not due 
to any agency other than man, and that the changes were made 
when the bones were fresh, in order that the evidencs may be em- 
ployed in determining man's contemporaneity with the animals 
which the bones represent. This also suggests the fact, which de- 

1 Skeletal Remains, etc., Bulletin S3 of the Bureau of American Ethnology. 



hedliCka] SKELETAL REMAINS OF EAELY MAN 209 

serves careful consideration, that the date of the final extinction of 
some of these animals is still an unsolved problem. 

9. Finally, it was seen that the anatomic features of the human 
bones are not incompatible with a recent date for the skeleton. The 
excessive wear of the teeth, the many signs of ' 'dry arthritis, " the size 
of the specimens, are all features well knOwn among the Indians. As 
to the stature of less than 1.51 meters, the estimate was made in the 
absence of any of the long bones and may be too low, as the meas- 
urements of the metacarpal and metatarsal bones seem to indicate. 
However, individual females below 1 .50 meters in height, especially 
among the aged, are really common among the Peruvian, Bolivian, 
and numerous Brazilian tribes. The feature has no weight as an 
indication of antiquity of the human remains under consideration. 

The unavoidable conclusion regarding the antiquity of the Arroyo 
de Frias finds of human bones, reached after due consideration of all ' 
the above-outlined fragmentary and, in the main, inexpert evidence, 
is that they contribute practically nothing that can be relied on as 
decisive toward the solution of the vexed question of man's antiquity 
in Argentina. 

THE SALADERO SKELETON 

Historical Notes and Previous Reports 

The remains known as the Saladero skeleton were found in 1876 by 
Santiago Koth, at that time a young collector of fossils. 

According to his account, there are frequently seen in the pampas 
areas where the humus layer is wanting and the eolian loess appears 
upon the surface. These patches are called desplayadas or comede- 
ros. In course of time some of these areas become covered with 
vegetation while others remain barren. 

It was in one of these desplayadas, less than 10 km. from Pergamino, 
and near the saladero of Senor R. Otero, that Roth found his first fossil 
man. He was collecting bones of fossil animals, being accompanied 
by Jose Mayorotti. Roth 1 says that after having searched for some- 
time this denuded locality he saw "in a gully about 3 meters deep ; 
protruding from the loess, a portion of a skull. We dug this out and 
also the skeleton, which was exceedingly well preserved. Unfortu- 
nately it was afterward nearly all destroyed through bad handling; 
some small fragments only were sent by me much later to Senor Bur- 
meister in Buenos Aires. " 

Further details regarding the find are given in Roth's letter to Pro- 
fessor Kollmann. 2 In this we read that Roth, after exploring the 

1 Roth, S., Beobachtungen iiber Entstehung und Alter der Pampasformation in Argentinien; in Zeitschrift 
der deutschen geologischen Gesellschaft, xl, Berlin, 1888, pp. 448-449. 

2 Ueber den Schadel von Pontimelo (richtiger Fontezuelas) ; in Mitth. anat. Inst. Vesalianum zu Basel, 
1889, pp. 1-4; also in Lehmann-Nitsche, Nouvelles recherches, etc., pp. 470-487. 

21535°— Bull. 52—12 14 



210 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

desplayada with his companion and locating some bones of fossil 
animals, l 'perceived, in the wall of a gully which was about 3 meters 
deep, a portion of a skull, which protruded slightly from the loess. 
Don Jose thought that the skull was that of an Indian, but I replied 
that more probably we were confronted with the results of some crime, 
because the Indians, not possessing utensils for digging, contented 
themselves with covering their dead with the little earth that they 
were able to scrape together, while this skeleton was interred at an 
unusual depth. The idea that these remains might belong to a man 
contemporary with the Glyptodon never even occurred to me" I did 
not examine the bones closely and had no intention of exhuming them. 
But as Mayorotti wanted to disinter the skeleton and take it home, I 
helped him in the work. The skeleton occupied a sitting posture, 
with the legs extended, the head slightly inclined forward. All the 
bones existed in their normal relations, as in life. We paid attention 
to this because I suspected a crime, and we also searched with care 
for any objects that might be present and that might decide whether 
the remains were those of a Christian or an Indian, but we found 
absolutely nothing. As to the form of the skull, which, besides, fell 
into a great number of pieces, I have no recollection. . . . About 
one year later I saw in the garden of Mayorotti some fragments of 
fossil bones and, on asking him where these bones were from, he 
responded that they belonged to the human skeleton which we dug 
out near Saladero; the bones were exposed to the sun and rain for the 
purpose of getting them bleached and they fell to pieces. 

"In the interval I had made other excavations, which resulted in 
the discovery of a flint weapon (silex-wajfe) on the site of the remains 
of a Scelidotherium. [*] This find puzzled me considerably. Senor 
Pedro Pico, to whom I communicated my finds, told me it was not 
the first time that such a case had presented itself, for another person 
had, in his knowledge, found a very similar implement in the midst 
of the remains of the Machserodus. [ 2 ] I left the implement with 
Senor Pico. At the same time I learned also that Seguin had found 
long before, on the borders of Rio Carcarana, fossil human bones 
mingled with the bones of Ursus bonaerensis. These circumstances 
influenced me to gather the bones which still remained from the 
skeleton of Saladero, for the purpose of sending them to H. Bur- 
meister at Buenos Aires. . . . 

"I had completely forgotten my discovery of the fossil human 
remains of Saladero when, in 1881, I brought to Burmeister for 
examination the lower jaw of the skull of Fontezuelas. Burmeister 

[' On the banks of the Arroyo Zanjon not far from Pergamino; the object, apparently an arrow point, now 
no more to be found, is said by Roth to have lain under one of the thigh bones of the animal. (Lehmann- 
Nitsche, Nouvelles recherches, etc., p. 482, footnote.)] 

P According to Lehmann-Nitsche, this was the arrow point found by the Breton brothers. Later the 
find was discredited.] 



hrdli£ka] SKELETAL REMAINS OF EARLY MAN 211 

then produced from a case the still-existing fragments of the human 
remains from Saladero to compare them with those which I now 
submitted to him. He declared at once that the two were of equal age 
and belonged to the Pampean formation. The written statements of 
Burmeister, however, are not in accord with these remarks. In one 
passage he expresses himself as follows : 1 ' I saw myself the teeth 
said to be fossil, but could not distinguish the same by any character- 
istic from the teeth of ancient Indian skulls.' This observation could 
not have applied to anything except the human remains from Saladero 
which I brought him in 1877 and among which there were a.large num- 
ber of teeth. At this time Burmeister was evidently not convinced of 
the existence of man during the formation of the Pampean deposits ; 
but why did he mention only the teeth, which are subject to the 
least change, and not also the fragments of other bones, which he 
himself declared later to be of the same age with the Glyptodon. [ 2 ] 
Every specialist who sees these bones must recognize that they proceed 
from the Pampean formation, because of the characteristic calcareous 
concretionary matter which adheres to them and even fills some 
of the medullary spaces." 

Lehmann-Nitsche 3 examined such of these fragments as are still 
preserved in the Museo Nacional at Buenos Aires. He found two 
pieces of the left femur and a number of teeth. As to the femur, he 
reports that the cavities of the spongy part and the medullary canal 
are completely filled with solidified calcareous matter; the external 
layer, where it still exists, is of a light-yellow color and adheres 
strongly to the tongue; at the same time the bones are very friable. 
Anatomic observations were almost impossible owing to the frag- 
mentary condition of the specimens. So far as could be seen, there 
were no remarkable features. "The teeth, nine in number, show all 
grades of wear ; the enamel is perfectly preserved and presents in some 
places particles of tartar incrustation, easy to detach; the roots adhere 
to the tongue." The dimensions of these teeth are not unusual. 
As to age, the find is regarded by Lehmann-Nitsche as Quaternary, 
Superior Pampean. 4 

Critical Remarks 

Judging from the position of the body and the natural relations 
of all the parts, the Saladero skeleton can be regarded only as repre- 
senting an undisturbed, ordinary interment. The sitting position 
is found occasionally in Indian burials and is a modification of the 
contracted posture, which was general. It was due possibly to the 
effects of rigor mortis on the body before preparation for burial. 

1 Burmeister, H., Description physique de la Republique Argentine, m, Buenos Aires, 1879, p. 42. 

2 No such statement was found in the writings of Burmeister.— A. H. 

3 Nouvelles recherches, etc., p. 253. 

* Lehmann-Nitsche, R., El hombre f<5sil pampeano; in Bol. Ofic. Nac. Est., Las Paz, Bolivia, vi, 1910, 
pp. 363-360. 



212 BUREAU OP AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

There are no data as to the exact depth at which the body lay, no 
photograph showing the remains; but granting that it was deeper 
than in an ordinary grave, who shall say that it was not buried in a 
depression or crevice, and that since the burial there were no additions 
to the general Pampean surface by wind or water or through the 
medium of the humus ? 

Roth's objection to burial, on the basis that the Indians had no 
means with which to dig a grave, is not tenable, for they always had 
bones of animals, and antlers, which are capable of making excellent 
digging tools, and they probably had also sticks, if no other imple- 
ments. To scrape together enough earth for effectually covering a 
human body involves quite as much work, except in sandy places, 
as the digging of a not very deep grave, and necessitates the use of 
similar implements. 

That the bones lay in the Pampean is natural. As everything 
beneath the vegetal stratum is regarded as Pampean, the body could 
not have been buried in anything else. That there was but little to 
direct special attention to the find at the time it was made appears 
plain enough from the words of Roth himself and from the subse- 
quent neglect of the bones. 

The state of fossilization of the specimens has not been chemically 
determined. As to incrustations, these are, even more than actual 
mineralization of a bone, an indication of environmental conditions ; in 
this case it was the presence of lime in percolating or underground 
waters. There are in the United States National Museum several large 
Spanish olive jars, dredged from Atlantic coast waters, large portions 
of which are thickly incrusted with calcareous deposits. The teeth of 
the common horse from the beach of Laguna de los Padres, near Mar 
del Plata, and to a slight extent even the fresher ones from the 
lower jaw of a horse found at Ovejero (see p. 257), show similar 
deposits; and these are also occasionally found on the bones and 
pottery of the North American Indians. In the Argentine loess, 
the richness of which in lime and perhaps in other salts is attested 
by the very prevalent tosca formation, it would doubtless be a far 
greater rarity to find bones that have lain more than a few decades in 
the ground, and that were not cleaned at once after exhumation, 1 with- 
out than with more or less compact cement adhering thereto, and also 
more or less filling of the bone cavities by the same calcareous mate- 
rial. The "adherence of the bone to the tongue," which is often 
mentioned in these cases, especially by Lehmann-Nitsche, as a sign 
of "fossilization," is merely a sign of the presence on or in the bone 
of more or less mineral matter, particularly lime and will be equally 
manifest in a specimen that has suffered such change recently as nT 
one in which the deposit or infiltration is of great age. The teeth of 

1 It was observed during the work in Argentina that sometimes loose earthy matter adhering to bones 
when taken from the ground becomes hard and adheres firmly after exposures. 



hedliCka] SKELETAL REMAINS OF EARLY MAN 213 

the Saladero skeleton, it was seen from Roth's and Lehmann-Nitsche's 
statements, are but little altered, although showing advanced wear, as 
is generally met with in the more aged Indian. Their relative fresh- 
ness would be wholly incompatible with any considerable age, espe- 
cially geologic age, of the skeleton. 

It is plain from the data extant on this find that there are many 
points relating to the Saladero skeleton which are not satisfactorily 
cleared up by the evidence, and that its antiquity is not sub- 
stantiated. This is still another example of a case in regard to 
man's antiquity in South America which has been made to appear 
important but which will not stand critical tests. The bones were 
conceived of as ancient only because, long after their discovery, they 
were found to show some "fossilization." 

THE FONTEZUELAS SKELETON 

History and Reports 

The Fontezuelas skeleton represents another find by Santiago 
Roth. It was discovered by him in 1881, at the distance of slightly 
more than a mile (2-3 km.) from the Rio Arrecifes, in a locality 
called Pontimelo or, more properly, Fontezuelas. 

The find took place under circumstances which were reported for 
the first time by Vogt in 1881 .* Vogt was informed of the particulars 
by Roth himself through correspondence and later by oral com- 
munication. The data are as follows: 

Roth was collecting the remains of extinct animals in the locality 
under consideration. The terrane of the region, according to him, is 
composed of (a) the surface layer of vegetal earth; (&) the upper 
layer of the Pampean formation, 5 to 24 m. in thickness, containing 
the remains of the glyptodon, hoplophorus, mylodon, and other fossil 
animals; and (c) a deeper Pampean layer, 1 to 3 m. in thickness, 
containing the remains of the mastodon, megatherium, panochthus, 
doedicurus, and toxodon. Beneath layer c is a deep clayey stratum 
of unknown thickness. 

Layers b and c were considered by Roth as Quaternary but with 
distinct faunas which were never found mingled. In 1888, however, 
that author published an account of the fossil animals which he had 
discovered, 2 and the details show that species found in stratum b 
were also not infrequently encountered in layer c, and vice versa. 

The human bones were discovered in layer b. This layer had 
become exposed through denudation. Protruding from it were found 
the edges of the carapace of a glyptodon. The carapace lay slightly 
obliquely and with its convex part downward, hence in a position the 
reverse of the natural. Raising this carapace, there were gathered 

1 Vogt, O, Squelette humain associe aux glyptodontes; in Bull. Soc. d'Anthr. Paris, 3 me ser.,rv, 1881, 
pp. 693-699. 

2 In Zeitschrift der deutschen geologischen Gesellschaft, xl, Berlin, 1888, pp. 400-401. 



214 BtFEEAU OF AMEEICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

also the pelvis and the femur of the animal. 1 A workman then 
observed to Roth that a "fossil gourd protruded from the ground. 
It was the top of a human skull. [ 2 ] This was excavated with great 
care. The lower jaw was in its proper place. The other bones of 
the skeleton fell to powder." 3 

Following the above, Vogt quotes Roth as follows : 

"The ribs lay dispersed here and there; the cervical vertebrae were 
quite far from the skull; one of the femurs still held to the pelvis. 
The bones of the feet were scattered everywhere and a number of 
them were missing; the bones of one of the hands were still in place, 
those of the other being dispersed. I have not been able to find more 
than remnants of the vertebral column in a concretioned mass of 
earth, which I saved. All these bones were decomposed, the external 
parts being removed by decay, the cores alone being still recognizable. 
All the bones were at the same level, below the Glyptodon, in the 
steep bank of the stream. [ 4 1 Beneath the skull was found an oyster 
shell [ 5 ] 5 cm. long and 3 cm. broad, also an instrument of deer horn 
18 cm. long and 1.5 cm. thick at its base." 

Vogt's remarks are, in brief, that in the branch of the deer horn, a 
photograph of which he received, he was not able to recognize an 
intentionally made instrument; also, that after the receipt of the 
first letter from Roth he had answered him that the contemporaneity, 
of the human skeleton with the glyptodons could not be admitted 
unless the probability of later interment was absolutely excluded. 
"It is possible, I told him, that the earth had been moved and that 
remains of very different ages were thus brought together." Roth 
responded that movements of the ground, except in cases where other 
proofs exist, can not be distinguished in the Pampean formation. 
The soil, he said, is so fine, yielding, and homogeneous that when 
excavated in making a pit and thea returned to its place, it soon incor- 
porates itself so well with the surrounding earth that it is impossible 
to find again the place of excavation. But as to an interment of the 
skeleton, that, he declared, he could not admit. "It would have 
been necessary to remove the whole carapace of the Glyptodon in order 
to place the cadaver in the position where I found the skeleton, and 
then to replace the carapace, bedding it well with earth so that it would 
keep the position in which I found it." 

In 1882 and again in 1884 Roth speaks of the find under considera- 
tion, in his catalogue of the Pampean fossils. 6 This catalogue was not 

1 Erroneous; the bones were the pelvis and the femur of man; see further. 

2 Nothing is said in this place as to the level at which the skull was noticed.— A. H. 

3 This should probably read "some of the bones of the skeleton fell to pieces." See further. 

[■> " Sur la berge du fleuve"; this point is confusing, for no other mention is made of a stream in close 
proximity. The Rio Arrecifes was given before as more than a mile distant.] 

[ 5 Later, in other accounts, mentioned as a shell of a "bivalve."] 

6 Roth, S., Fossiles de la Pampa, Amerique du Sud; in Catalogue, San Nicolas, 1882, pp. 3-4 (2™ ed.), 
Genova, 1884, pp. 5-7, pi. I. 



hrdliCka] SKELETAL REMAINS OF EARLY MAN 215 

obtainable, but the statement is quoted in full by Ameghino, 1 as fol- 
lows: "The point where these fossil remains were discovered is sit- 
uated on a slight incline which descends from a higher swell of land 
and unites the same with the border of the river, the place where the 
human remains were found being half a league, more or less, from the 
Rio de Arrecifes. The locality where the excavation was made has 
been denuded by rains, the vegetal earth being carried away. The 
human skull was found at the same level as the carapace, on the side 
toward the river. The bones of the human skeleton were found 
scattered slightly (desparramados un poco) in all directions; one femur 
and the pelvis (cadera) were beneath the carapace of the animal. The 
skull was by itself and in the vertical position, the lower jaw below, 
the instrument of deer horn under the lower jaw with which it was 
in contact; the ribs were scattered, the atlas and axis lying 1.50 m. 
from the skull. What I could gather of the spinal column lay by 
itself. The bones of the feet were scattered; those of one hand were 
together, those of the other separated. The shell of a bivalve was 
found in the pelvis [ 2 ] (en la cadera), and, on cleaning it at my house, I 
found in the earth that held it some little bones of a small edentate. 
The carapace of the Glyptodon was turned over on its back, its border 
projecting from the ground. The position of the human skeleton 
makes me suppose that it was covered by earth through atmospheric 
influences after having remained for some time exposed to the air 
and the rain, which explains why a certain part of the bones show 
destruction of their surfaces while others, covered more promptly, are 
well-preserved." 

In 1883 the Fontezuelasfind, and particularly the skull, are discussed 
by Virchow. 3 The account by Roth given in the preceding lines is 
repeated, with the additional remark that from the presence of the 
bones of the small edentate Ro^ concluded that the animal served 
the man as food. 

Virchow does not enter into a critical consideration of the find. 
As to the antiquity of the human bones, he shows reserve. As to 
the skull, having only a photograph of its lateral aspect at hand, he 
misjudged its type, pointing out its apparent resemblances to the 
Sambaqui and the Pampean Indian crania. 

A year later, at the end of a correction of some statements concern- 
ing the nature of the Pampean deposits, 4 Burmeister also refers in a 
few words to the Fontezueias bones, saying that he has seen only 
the lower jaw, "which seemed to me to show nothing deviating from 
the type of the native race." 

1 Contribuci6n al eonocimiento de los mamiferos f6siles, etc., 1889, pp. 67, 84-85. 

* In the letter to Vogt (see above) it is said that an oyster shell was found below the skull. — A. fl. 

3 Ein mit Glyptodon-Resten gefundenes mensehliches Skelet aus der Pampa de la Plata; in Vefh. Ber. 
Ges.fiir Anthr., Eth., und Urg., xv, 1883, pp. 465-467. 

4 Burmeister, H., Bemerkungen in Bezugauf die Pampas-Formation; ibid., svi, 1884, p. 247. 



216 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY . [bull. 52 

The same year the skull from "Pontimelo" is considered by 
Kollmann. 1 There are no further data regarding the circumstances 
of the discovery. "The statements of Roth are admissible and there 
is no reason to doubt his reports, especially since Ameghino and 
Moreno [ 2 ] found traces of man in the same strata and with the same 
fauna." Kollman received a series of nine photographs of the skull 
and, using them as a basis, makes a number of determinations. 
Virchow's suppositions as to the form of the skull are equally errone- 
ously confirmed. It belongs to the "chamgeprosopic, brachycephalic, 
ancient race of the American diluvium." The forehead is not primi- 
tive in form but is broad, high, well-developed. 

In 1887 the skull is referred to by Quatrefages, who also regards 
it as brachycephalic, 3 and in 1888 the principal points relating to the 
find are given by Roth in his good paper on the Pampean forma- 
tions. 4 

Meanwhile the remains came into the possession of the Zoological 
Museum of the University of Copenhagen, and in 1888 a description 
of them was published by Hansen. 5 It was found that all the authors 
who based their opinions on the imperfect photographs of the skull 
reached erroneous conclusions. Its characteristics "are nearly the 
same as those of the race of Lagoa Santa. The skull is really dolicho- 
cephalic . . . and is even more hypsistenocephalic than the crania 
of the Sumidouro (Lagoa Santa) cave. . . . The facial parts had 
been broken and are not well restored," so that an exact description of 
the face is impossible. "For this reason it is necessary to restrict the 
remarks to the general statement that the face presents the same 
aspect as that of the race of Lagoa Santa. . . . If it is added to the 
above that the measurements of the long bones indicate a similar 
stature, it is seen that the individual should be regarded as a repre- 
sentative of the same ancient race^without any considerable diver- 
gence." 

Concerning the find as a whole Hansen says: "A close examination 
of M. Roth's account gave the result that it is not possible to regard 
the contemporaneity of fossil man and Glyptodon as absolutely proven. 
This find does not suffice to solve the question of the antiquity of 
man in South America. . . . 

[P. 30] "It is a circumstance of no small interest that the skeleton 
was found near a river, on a declivity on which the Pampean forma- 
tion, consisting of a very fine clayey sand, was not covered by any 

1 Kollman, J., Schadeln von Pontimelo; in his Hohes Alter der Menschenrassen, in Zeitschr. fur Ellin., 
xvi, Berlin 1884, pp. 200-205. 

[ 2 Reference can be only to Moreno's Rio Negro finds, which, however, were not made in the Pampean 
soil, nor were they accompanied by bones of fossil animals.] 

3 Quatrefages, A. de, Histoire generate des races humaines; in 2 pts., Paris, 1887-89, pp. 85-86, 105. 

* Referred to in the earlier part of this section. 

6 Hansen, Soren, Det jordfundne Menneske fra Pontimelo (with abstract in French), in his Lagoa Santa 
Racen, in Samling af Afhandlinger e Museo Lundii, I, Kjobenhavn, 1888, pp. 1-27, pi. IV. 



BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 



BULLETIN 52 PLATE 18 




SKULL OF F0NTE2UELAS. (After Soren Hansen) 



hkdliCka] SKELETAL REMAINS OF EARLY MAN 217 

layer of humus, because the individual bones did not occupy their 
natural relative positions, but were scattered over a rather large 
surface and seem to have been exposed to some change of location at 
a time when the water of the river stood higher. The carapace of the 
Glyptodon mentioned was lying on the back, but somewhat obliquely, 
and projected from the surface above the pelvis and a femur of the 
same animal. [*] However, no other bones of the animal were found, 
and the Glyptodon had remained undisturbed until Roth dug it up. 
Even if the human bones were in reality lying underneath the carapace, 
which is not quite certain, it is out of the question to regard the cir- 
cumstances of the deposit as trustworthy proof that the Pontimelo 
man lived simultaneously with, or before, the Glyptodon. The Pampean 
layer consists of a mass so loose and mobile that the objects contained 
in it can not remain in all probability long in their original position. 
Roth himself in one of the letters to Vogt has given a very significant 
account of these conditions." 

The principal measurements of the Fontezuelas skull are (Hansen) : 

cm. 

Length , 18.5 

Breadth 13. 6 

Cephalic index 73.5 

Basion-bregma height, about 14. 

Circumference 52. 

Transverse arc 31.5 

Nasion-opisthion arc 39. 

Diameter frontal minimum ' 9.7 

The stature is estimated at 151.5 m. The illustrations of the skull 
are here reproduced (pi. 18). 

In 1889 Roth wrote to Kollmann on the subject of the "Pontimelo " 
skull. 2 This letter was incited by the remarks of Hansen. We learn 
from it that the statement in Vogt, which refers to the finding below 
the carapace of the glyptodon, of the pelvis and a femur of the same 
animal, is erroneous and should read "pelvis and a femur of man." 
Of the glyptodon there existed only a part of the carapace. There 
are then references to the Carcarana, Saladero, and Baradero finds 
of "fossil" human bones, with additional remarks on finds of ancient 
stone implements and baked earth, but there is nothing further 
concerning the details of the Fontezuelas discovery. 

In answer to this letter, Kollmann (ibid.) says, "the decision [as 
to the antiquity of the skeleton] lies with the geologists. . . . We 
in Europe can contribute next to nothing to the solution of these 
pending questions; we can only bring forward, as Hansen did, doubts 
and reflections. Fortunately the skull of Fontezuelas is not the 

p Copies Vogt's error; should read "of man.'"] 

2Ueber den Schiidel von Pontimelo (richtiger Fontezuelas): in Mitth. anat. Inst. Vesalianum zu Basel, 
18S9, pp. 1-4; and in Lehmann-Nitsehe, Nouvelles recherches, etc., pp. 470-487. 



218 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

only evidence which makes the existence of man in those regions 
in the time of the large South American mammals seem highly 
probable." 

In 1889 also, as already mentioned, the Fontezuelas find is referre.d 
to, but with a bad error, in Ameghino's work on the fossil mammals 
of Argentina. 1 Ameghino concludes that, on the basis of the available 
data, "this skeleton belongs really to the Superior Pampean, to its 
most superficial layers, being much more modern than that of Mer- 
cedes [Arroyo de Frias] and that of the Rio Samborombon." 

In 1891 Kobelt speaks of the find, 2 following Ameghino, and sug- 
gests indirectly the name Homo pliocenicus for the new species of 
man represented by the Fontezuelas skeleton. 

In 1902 Virchow 3 returns in a few words to the "Pontimelo" 
skull. He says: "Of the oldest crania in America, such as could be 
ascribed to the diluvial if not to even the Tertiary period, there are 
known in general only peculiar cases, with which one can do but 
little;" and then deplores his error in having considered the skull of 
"Pontimelo," on the strength of a photograph, brachycephalic. 

Some brief remarks concerning the Fontezuelas and other Ter- 
tiary skeletons are found in a later (1906) publication by Ameghino, 4 
which read as follows: 

"The remains of man from the Superior Pliocene (Fontezuelas) 
indicate a small race, reaching the height of approximately 1.50 m., 
with a frontal curve of medium elevation, without or with only 
slight supraorbital swellings, with asternal perforation and 18 dorso- 
lumbar vertebrae. [ 5 ] These last characteristics are very primitive 
and this race was made a distinct species, named by Kobelt Homo 
pliocenicus." 

Finally, in 1907, the Fontezuelas human bones are dealt with by 
Lehmann-Nitsche 6 who reexamined them and gave a detailed report 
on their physical characteristics. Nothing is added to the already- 
mentioned data concerning the circumstances of the find. Lehmann- 
Nitsche's own statement begins with the rather naive assertions that, 
"having studied personally the originals at Copenhagen, I can affirm 
without fear of being mistaken that all the debris of the skeleton 
came undoubtedly from the Pampean formation. All the peculiar- 
ities which they present are absolutely identical with those which 
one observes in the bones of the great mammals that are so well 
known, which fact has also been expressly remarked by Hansen 

1 Contribuci6n al conocimiento de los mamiferos f6siles, etc., p. 67. 

The account speaks in one place of the skeleton as having been found in, instead of under, the 
carapace of a glyptodon, an error later copied by Kobelt. 

2 Ameghinos Forschungen in den Argentinischen Pampas; in Globus, Bd.,Lix, Braunschweig, 1891, pp. 
132-136. 

' Crania ethnica americana, Berlin, 1892, p. 29. 

* Les formations s6dimentaires, etc.; in Anal. Mus. Nac. Buenos Aires, xv (ser. 3, t. vm), 1906, p. 447. 

[ 5 The last two features relate to the Samboromb6n skeleton (p. 233).] 

6 Nouvelles recherches, etc., pp. 253-296. 



hrdliCka] SKELETAL REMAINS OF EAELY MAN 219 

himself. They have the same dry, spongy constitution and they are 
very fragile, very friable. All are of a dark-yellowish color. Some 
of the bones, as for example the humerus, are covered with character- 
istic calcareous incrustations, which adhere strongly and can not be 
separated without taking with them the surface of the bone. Besides 
this, the detailed description which Roth published about his discovery 
and which he personally repeated to me, has convinced me fully of the 
contemporaneity of Glyptodon with the man of Fontezuelas." 

The results of Lehmann-Nitsche's examination of the specimens are 
in the main as follows : 

The description and measurements of Hansen, so far as they go, 
are correct. The basal parts and also the occiput show slight post- 
humous depressions. The facial parts also have been altered by 
pressure. Besides the posthumous compression, Lehmann-Nitsche 
believes there is a slight posterior artificial flattening. 

The skull is dirty yellowish-gray in color and the bone adheres 
strongly to the tongue. The parietal region shows some calcareous 
incrustations. The cranium is very large and massive, its external 
form suggesting decidedly that of the modern Tehuelche skulls. 
The details concerning the external characteristics of the vault show 
no remarkable features. 

As to sex, it is not unlikely that it is feminine. 1 The lower jaw, 
however, suggests a male rather than a female. It is very robust 
and massive and its body is voluminous; the ascending rami are 
nearly vertical but not particularly broad. The surface of the bone 
is covered with calcareous incrustations. The inferior outline of the 
jaw is angular, the chin part being square. The prominence of the 
chin is seen to be fairly developed. 

The teeth in general are large ; they are very much worn 2 and in 
the manner observed among the modern Indians of South America. 

Measurements of the lower jaw of Fontezuelas 

Length from right condyle (middle of the posterior border) to the antero- 

superior border of the symphysis (the condyle is somewhat damaged), at cm. 

least 11. 

Height of the ascending ramus, from the inferior border to the notch, in a direc- 
tion parallel to the posterior border 5.2 

Breadth of the ascending ramus, perpendicular to the preceding measurement 3 . 3. 7 

Height at symphysis 3.3 

Maximum thickness at symphysis (without internal spine) 1. 7 

Thickness of horizontal ramus between second and third molars 1. 6 

Angle (bigoniac) 115° 

1 A skull of such size, particularly if belonging to a short skeleton, with lower jaw, zygomae, and mas- 
toids as present in this specimen, can more safely be regarded as masculine. The strength of the humerus 
and the narrowness of the greater sciatic notch make the identification of the skeleton as that of a male 
quite definite.— A. H. 

2 The size of the teeth, ignoring extremes, can not be judged with any degree of certainty when the 
crowns are worn off in an advanced degree. — A. H. 

8 Breadth minimum? 



220 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

The parts of the skeleton still in existence comprise: The atlas 
with portions of the axis, and the third cervical vertebra; remains of 
the rest of the vertebral column, conserved in the earth with which 
they are enveloped; a number of pieces of ribs; portions of the pelvis, 
including the two acetabula; some fragments of the scapulae and 
clavicles; the two humeri, one nearly complete, the other very 
defective; the two radii, incomplete; one ulna, also incomplete; the 
bones of the right hand, nearly complete; the bones of the left hand, 
very incomplete; the two femora, nearly entire; the two patellae, 
imperfect ; the two tibiae, nearly whole; the two fibulae, very defective; 
some bones of the feet; and a large quantity of debris of bones from 
the same skeleton. It is plain that, notwithstanding the fact that the 
bones were somewhat scattered, as reported by Roth, there is very 
little, if anything, missing from the complete skeleton. Also, numer- 
ous bones appear to be in much better condition than the remarks 
in the earlier reports on the find would indicate. 

The three cervical vertebrae are still in their natural position, 
enveloped in loess and forming one piece, but the bones are so defective 
that they offer but little for examination. The few measurements 
that could be taken present no special features. 

The fragments of pelvic bones show a narrow greater sciatic notch, 
in marked contrast with that of the skeleton from the Arroyo de Frias, 
in which this notch was very wide. 1 A particular outline taken on one 
of the fragments "corresponds absolutely to modern types." 

The right humerus is above medium in strength; it is not markedly 

platybrachic. 

The principal measurements of the humeri Right. Left. 

Maximum length, about 29. 

Maximum diameter at middle 2.4 2.1 

Minimum diameter at middle 1-7 1. 65 

Index at middle 70. 8 78.6 

Circumference at middle 6.9 6. 3 

The measurements show that the right humerus is short and mas- 
sive, while the left is weaker. 

The radii are quite straight, but not very stout. The interosseous 
border shows the usual form. So far as can be determined, the ulna 
was quite strong. 

As to the femora, the maximum length of the left bone was calcu- 
lated by Hansen at 40 cm., the same by Lehmann-Nitsche at 39.7 
cm., the bicondylar length at 39.6 cm. The bones are not very mas- 
sive, the circumference at the middle measuring 8 cm. on the right, 
7.9 cm. on the left. The platymeric index is 73.3, which is not 
remarkable. The linea aspera is very broad in its whole extent but 

i These are simply sexual characteristics, the wideness of the notch indicating a female; its narrowness, 
a male. — A. H. 



BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 



BULLETIN 52 PLATE 19 




a h c 

LEFT FEMUR OF F0NTE2UELAS SKELETON. (After Lehmann-Nitsche) 
Anterior (a), medial (&), and posterior (c) views. 



BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 



BULLETIN 52 PLATE 20 




a a' b V 

TIBI/E OF FONTEZUELAS SKELETON. (After Lehmann-Nitsche) 
Right: a, lateral view; a', anterior view; Left: 6, lateral view; V, anterior view. 



hbdliCka] SKELETAL REMAINS OF EARLY MAN 221 

there is no marked pilasterism. The pilasteric index of 1124 on the 
right, and 112.5 on the left, corresponds very closely with that of the 
Saladero (Arizona), the Sioux, and other Indians. In general form 
the bones differ from those of the Homo primigenius and approximate 
to those of the present man. (Pis. 19, 20.) 

The tibiae "offer no special features." They are notably platyc- 
nemic. The retroversion of the head is marked. 

Principal measurements of the Fontezuelas tibix 

Right. Left, 

cm. cm. 

Length between the articular surfaces \ 32. 5 32. 7 

Diameter antero-posterior at middle 3.3 3,2 

Diameter lateral at middle 2. 1 1. 9 

Index at middle 63. 6 59.4 

Diameter antero-posterior at nutritive foramen 3. 6 3. 5 

Diameter lateral at nutritive foramen 2. 1 1. 9 

Index at nutritive foramen 58.3 54.3 

Circumference at middle 8. 6 8. 3 

"The fibulae offer no particular features." 

The humero-femoral index is about 73.2; the tibio-femoral index 
about 82.6. Both of these proportions are well within the range of 
variation of the modern man. 

The stature is calculated at 151.2 cm., almost identical with the 
estimate of Hansen, this assuming that the skeleton is that of a female ; 
if a male [and so it should be regarded!, 153.6 cm. 

The bones of the hands and the feet present no remarkable features. 

As usual in this series of his reports, Lehmann-Nitsche avoids sum- 
marizing the results of his studies and conclusions ; but his study has 
brought out no points about the skeleton that would suggest another 
species of man or even a type differing from that of the recent Indian. 

As to its age, in a subsequent publication 1 Lehmann-Nitsche 
places the skeleton among those belonging to the Superior Pampean 
(Quaternary) . 

Critical Remarks 

The pivotal question in regard to the Fontezuelas skeleton is, of 
course, that of its geologic age; and the criteria of age are strati- 
graphic position, association, alterations in, and the morphologic 
characteristics of, the bones. Let us test these several factors as 
applied to the case under consideration. 

It should be stated to start with that the writer, who became per- 
sonally acquainted with Santiago Roth, learned to appreciate highly 
the latter's integrity as well as his ability, and can not but regard his 
statements with entire confidence. However, his statements re- 
garding the Fontezuelas find are not as detailed as desirable and are 

1 Lehmann-Nitsche, R., El hombre fosil pampeano; in Bol. Ofic. Nac. Est., La Paz, Bolivia, vi, 1910 
pp. 363-366. 



222 BUEEAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

not accompanied by exact measurements and photographic records, 
both of which in cases of this nature must be regarded as indis- 
pensable. We are told that there was only a part of the carapace, 
but are left in doubt as to how large that part was, how deep it lay, 
exactly how it was related to the human bones, and exactly how deep 
these were buried. 

The barren surface in which the find was made is mentioned as 
"exposed through denudation," but it is not clear how deep this 
denudation was and whether it was recent or of ancient date. Most 
of the points here cited may not be of paramount importance, but in 
a case like this full and precise data relating to every particular are 
needed. 

The carapace of the glyptodon, which lay inverted over the human 
bones, affords some means of estimating the depth of the latter be- 
neath the surface at the time of the discovery. The complete cara- 
pace of a full grown glyptodon measures about 3 feet in height, but as 
in this case only part of the shield was present and as the border of 
this, moreover, protruded from the ground, the human bones must 
have been buried less than 3 feet deep. Even if it be granted that 
the locality had been denuded of its humus layer and perhaps even of 
the uppermost layers of the soil beneath, the depth at which the 
human bones lay must be regarded as having been moderate. 

The different parts of the skeleton were somewhat scattered, yet 
larger or smaller fragments of practically all the bones remained. 
This does not seem to warrant the conclusion that the body lay until 
decomposed on the surface of the ground. If left thus, it would have 
fallen in all probability a prey to carnivorous animals and the body, 
or parts of it, would have been scattered, destroyed, or carried away. 
It appears much more probable that the body was buried and that 
most if not all the dissociation, fragmentation, and loss of parts of 
the bones, occurred subsequently beneath the surface, through the 
agency of inundations or other forces. 

The theory of accidental burial, advanced by Roth, encounters, 
however, another serious objection. If the remains of the body were 
covered through natural means, as claimed, we must ask how the 
empty and overturned glytodon carapace came to he directly over 
the human skeleton. Glyptodon skeletons occupying inverted posi- 
tions may be common enough but here we have the carapace only, 
with no intimation or evidence that the spot was ever a bed or a 
gully into which a glyptodon could roll and die, lying on its back, 
directly over a human skeleton. Moreover, if the human remains 
had been covered with loess through natural means, it is reasonable 
to suppose that the same thing would have happened at least in part 
with the skeletal remains of the glyptodon other than the carapace, 
but no trace of any of the bones of the animal, or of the scales of the 



hkdliCka] SKELETAL REMAINS OF EAELY MAN 223 

head or the tail was discovered. It is not probable therefore that 
the glyptodon rolled accidentally upon the human remains. 

But if the above supposition is abandoned, then we must conclude 
that the carapace alone, or a part of it, as found by Roth, reached 
somehow the position over the human body or bones, or that it 
was placed there by man. It will be seen at once that in either case 
the relation of the carapace to the human skeleton ceases to be of 
value as evidence of antiquity. 

An accidental presence above the human bones of the heavy up- 
turned carapace would be difficult to explain, although it not infre- 
quently happens that water, wind, and other agencies produce 
phenomena which are difficult or impossible to trace. Two inter- 
esting suggestions relating to overturned glyptodon carapaces, capa- 
ble of throwing light on this problem, are found in Roth's own paper 
on the pampas formation. We read: "Burmeister believes that 
these carapaces [of glyptodons] were carried for some time by water, 
the rest of the bones [of the glyptodons] being lost. However, we 
often find isolated bones of the same animal lying next to the cara- 
pace and even under it." 1 If this is true, then it is conceivable that 
the carapace in question may have been deposited on higher ground 
during some flood of the not far distant stream. But its deposition 
directly over a human skeleton, though not impossible, would be 
a rare chance. 

The most plausible solution appears to be the assumption that the 
carapace was placed over the human remains by man. This might 
have been done with or without the knowledge of the existence of 
the remains. In the latter instance the carapace might have been 
used on the same spot for a wind shield or for some other purpose^ 
such use of these carapaces having often been referred to by the 
Argentine paleontologists. 

It seems more rational to believe that the carapace was purposely 
laid over the human body as a covering and protection. In the 
absence of stone or heavier pieces of wood, if a carapace or a part of 
it was available, it is very likely that it would have been used by 
the natives who buried the body. As to the inverted position, it is 
not impossible a part of a carapace would be so placed originally. 
More probably, however, it was placed with the concavity downward 
and was disturbed subsequently by man, water, or some other agency; 
and the same agency may also have disturbed the bones beneath. 
Of course the carapace may already have been ancient when placed 
over the bones. 

However, it is not here intended to build up any hypotheses. 
The fact is there is not the slightest proof that the animal, part of 

i Roth, S., Beobachtungen iiber Entstehung und Alter der Panipasfonnation in Argentinian; in Zeitschr. 
deutsch. geol. Ges., XL, 1S88, p. 449. 



224 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

whose carapace lay over the Fontezuelas human bones, was con- 
temporaneous with the man to whom these bones belonged. This 
is true even though it is by no means yet established that the glyp- 
todons passed away at a very remote date. 

A petrographic examination of the bones with the view of deter- 
mining their state of fossilization has not been made. Adhesions 
of indurated calcareous matter alone are not incompatible with the 
relatively modern character of the bones. This subject has been 
already discussed at length, however, in other sections. 

In physical characteristics the bones are all closely related to those 
of the Indian skeleton; the femora and the tibiae in particular are 
typically Indian. The shaft of the tibia, as can well be seen in the 
illustration (p. 261), presents a flat quadrilateral shape, due to the 
excessive development of a ridge between the tibialis posticus and 
the flexor digitorum longus muscles, winch was frequent in the 
earlier Europeans, but occurs only very seldom in such a degree in 
the modern white, is not met with at all in the black, but is found 
again and again in the same form in the Indian. 

The small stature of the individual, whether female, as claimed by 
Lehmann-Nitsche, or male, as believed by the writer, does not prove 
the existence of an early pigmy race, for such stature is not rare in 
the more central regions of South America, especially in Peru and 
Bolivia. . 

The correctness of the preceding statement will best be seen from 
the following figures : The bicondylar length of 200 Peruvian femora, 
taken without selection from the United States National Museum 
collection, ranges from 33.9 to 44.6 cm., the average being 40 cm. 
Of the 200 bones, 98 (49 per cent of the whole), show a length less 
than that of the Fontezuelas femur. 

Again small stature is also met with frequently among the living 
Indians. It was shown by the writer on another occasion 1 that the 
minimum stature in normal males, even in tribes in which the average 
height is fair, often descends well below ] 60 cm. In six of the tribes 
it actually descends below that estimated for the Fontezuelas skele- 
ton. If the skeleton were that of a female, the conditions would be 
still less exceptional, for among the 19 tribes in which the women were 
measured the minimum stature in all but one is below that estimated 
for the Fontezuelas individual and in two tribes, the Aztec and the 
Tarasco, neither of which has ever been considered a tribe of pig- 
mies, even the average stature of the women falls below that of the 
subject under consideration. 

On the whole, the study of the Fontezuelas find leads to the 
conclusion that, even if some circumstances of the find can not be 

1 Hrdlifika, A., On the Stature of the Indians of the Southwest and of Northern Mexico; in Putnam 
Anniversary Volume, Cedar Rapids, Iowa, 1909, p. 42. 



hkdliCka] SKELETAL REMAIN'S OF EARLY MAN" 225 

fully explained, they are not incompatible with the recent age of the 
human remains; and the skeletal parts, when considered in the light 
of our present knowledge, speak so strongly for their Indian and 
modern origin that, unless additional proofs tending to establish the 
contrary are supplied, they can not but be so regarded. 

THE ARRECIFES SKULL 
Historical Remarks and Earlier Reports 

The first notice of the Arrecifes skull is found in Ameghino's work 
on the fossil mammals of Argentina. 1 After making certain remarks 
concerning the Fontezuelas skeleton, he says : 

"This region of the Rio de Arrecifes appears to have been at that 
epoch more populous or more suitable for man's habitation than 
the rest of the province, for, while writing these lines, I have received 
notice of the discovery of a human skull, evidently fossil, more or 
less under the same conditions as the preceding [Fontezuelas], at the 
distance of about 4 leagues from the town of Arrecifes, near the 
small Arroyo de Merlo and at a short distance from the channel of the 
Rio Arrecifes, on a declivity of the Pampean terrane denuded by the 
waters. I have not as yet seen the locality, but the aspect of the 
skull and its state of preservation show plainly that it proceeds from 
the red Pampean ground." 

On page 85 of the same work we read the following additional 
remarks in regard to the specimen: "The skull, of which I have two 
photographs, was recently found in the same northern region of the 
province [as the skull of "P'ontimelo"]. It is evidently of a distinct 
race, [ 2 ] dolichocephalic, with an index that should be in the proximity 
of 75, and also hipsistenocephalic, but of narrow and very low front, 
very pronounced supraorbital arches, and strong temporal crests." 

And without further data or consideration the skull is accepted as 
representing a variety of ancient man, for the following lines read: 
"We hold, then, the proof that during the formation of the Inferior 
[probably should read "Superior" — A. H.] Pampean, the province 
of Buenos Aires was inhabited in the same regions, although we have 
no evidence that it was absolutely synchronically, by two distinct 
human races, one dolichocephalic and with marked characteristics of 
inferiority in the skull; the other brachy cephalic. . . . 

"The representatives of both races were hipsistenocephalic and 
of very small stature." 

No other account of the discovery has ever been published by 
Ameghino. But in 1906, in his work on the sedimentary formations, 3 

i Contribution al conocimiento de los mamiferos f6siles, etc., 1889, pp. 67, 85. 

2 From that represented by the Arroyo de Frias, Samborombtfn, and Fontezuelas skulls. — A. H. 

3 Les formations sSdimentaires, etc.; in Anal. Mus. Nac. Buenos Aires, xv (ser. in, t. vin), 1906, pp. 
446-447. 

21535°— Bull. 52—12 15 



226 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

this author gives another illustration of the Arrecifes skull, marking it 
as " Inferior Quaternary/' and offers the following remarks (p. 447), 
which ill agree with those quoted in the preceding lines: "The man 
of the Quaternary epoch [fig. 344 = the skull] does not appear to 
differ from that of the present period, but his remains are very inter- 
esting because they seem to indicate that he is the result of an evolu- 
tion effected on this continent." 

A few details concerning the find, based on personal information 
obtained from Ameghino, were published in 1907, with a description 
of the skull, by Lehmann-Nitsche. 1 The skull was found by M. Mon- 
guillot, a preparator formerly attached to the Museo Nacional, in 
the locality mentioned above, "in terrane belonging to the Pam- 
pean formation, which was left exposed by water." Ameghino 
acknowledged he "did not know the locality; but the aspect of the 
skull, its state of preservation, and the information given by the 
preparator, proved to him conclusively that the specimen came from 
the upper layers of the Superior Pampean formation." 

The above is absolutely all that has been reported of this discovery, 
and the case must be regarded as one of the most striking illustra- 
tions of the poor foundations on which the structure of the theory 
of ancient man in South America is built. 

The skull is now the property of the Museo de la Facultad de 
Filosofia y Letras, Buenos Aires, where it was examined by Lehmann- 
Nitsche and also by the writer, thanks to the courtesy of Senor Juan 
Ambrosetti, director of the museum (fig. 45). 

Lehmann-Nitsche' s principal remarks and conclusions in regard 
to the specimens are as follows (p. 299 et seq.): 

"As to the question whether the cranium really is derived from 
the Upper Pampean loess, it would be equally possible to sustain that 
opinion or oppose it. 

"In favor of the antiquity of the specimen is the circumstance 
that the parts of the bone which have been freed from calcareous 
incrustation adhere strongly to the tongue; they have all the aspect 
of fossility, a yellowish-white color, fragile structure, etc. Besides 
that, the ventral surface of the skull is covered by a very irregular 
granular layer of strongly effervescent carbonate of lime. Similar 
calcareous covering over the external surface reaches in some spots 
a thickness of more than 1 millimeter, and is composed of at least 
three perfectly distinct layers. This differs from the known in- 
crustations which cover animal bones from the Pampean formation 
and resembles the stalactite that forms on objects plunged into 

1 Nouvelles recherches, etc., pp. 298-320; also the somewhat earlier publication on the same subject 
in the Revista de la Universidad de Buenos Aires, vm, 1907, reprint, pp. 1-46. The two accounts differ in a 
number of secondary particulars. All quotations and references that follow are from the Nouvelles 
recherches, etc. 



i-irdliCka] 



SKELETAL REMAINS OF EARLY MAN 



227 



mineral waters containing much lime in solution, as those of 
Carlsbad. . . . 

"Against the opinion which attributes the skull to loess, may be 
advanced, as proof, the lack of data regarding the find, as well as the 
relatively satisfactory preservation of the osseous substance; but in 
reality the bone has been protected by the calcareous envelope which 
covered it.f 1 ] The chocolate-colored stains visible on some parts of 
the lamina interna suggest exactly the color of the ancient Patagonian 




Fig. 45. Skull of Arrecifes, norma lateralis. (After Lehmann-Nitsche.) 

skulls from the Rio Negro, of which an important series exists in the 
Museo de la Plata, the 'Quaternary' age of which is affirmed only 
by Ameghino.[ 2 ] . . . 

"However this may be, I consider the skull, without hesitation, 
very ancient, without venturing to call it absolutely fossil, and I 
believe that the term subfossil would well express the idea of its great 
age." 



[' Experience with Indian skeletal material from limestone caves in California has been quite to the con- 
trary, bones or parts of bones coated with or embedded in stalagmitic deposits showing advanced changes; 
there is marked loss in organic matter, the bones are yellowish-white to white in color, and where there is 
no interstitial infiltration of lime, they are fragile.] 

[ 2 This statement is unjust to Ameghino who, at the place indicated, states with emphasis that Pampean 
deposits are absent from the entire lower part of the valley of the Rio Negro and that the skull in question 
(Moreno's collection) is unquestionably Post- Pampean (see also p. 196 of this report). As to the stains, such 
disseminated black or brown spots are very common on bones and usually are devoid of all significance as 
to the age of the specimen.] 



228 BUBEAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [boll. 52 

Of the various specimens described in this paper, Lehmann-Nitsche 
continues, " the subfossil skull of Arrecifes seems to be the most recent. 
I am firmly convinced that it may proceed from the Pampean forma- 
tion.^] All its characteristics indicate that it is very ancient and is 
comparable in this respect with all the other human remains which 
were studied in this work." 

The preceding excerpt is from page 300. On page 320, at the end 
of the study of the specimen, Lehmann-Nitsche states his opinions 
as follows : 

"1. The Arrecifes skull is one of the most ancient crania of the 
Argentine Republic, even though it is not possible to attribute it with 
all certainty to the Pampean formation. 

"2. The length of the cerebral part of the skull surpasses the human 
average, the breadth equals exactly that average; the index of the 
vault is mesocephalic ; the height, great absolutely, presents, in rela- 
tion to the length, a figure that is relatively rather low (platycephaly). 

"3. The breadth of the forehead corresponds absolutely with the 
average; relatively (in regard to the breadth of the skull) it corres- 
ponds to the American type. The frontal and bregmatic angles, 
which indicate inclination backward of the front, are such as occur 
in man of the present day. 

"4. The facial part of the skull is more or less chamgeprosopic ; the 
index occupies an intermediary position among the human races in 
general [ 2 ] and among the various American tribes in particular. 

"5. The supraorbital arches are well marked and prominent; the 
supramastoideal crests are well developed; the mastoid incisure 
presents the form of a notch (American type) ; the digastric crest is in 
the form of a rude comb (d'un gros p eigne) ; the groove for the occipital 
artery is also notchlike. The occipital torus is very well marked and 
forms one long and large swelling. 

"6. The study of the skull of Arrecifes leads to the conclusion that 
it belongs to the actual human type and especially to the American 
type." 

In view of the last paragraph and of the almost entire absence of 
data concerning the find of the specimen under consideration, it is 
difficult to see on what the statements in paragraph 1 of the above 
conclusions and the statement on page 300 in Lehmann-Nitsche' s 
work are based. 

The more important of Lehmann-Nitsche' s measurements of the 
skull are as follows: 

i " Je suis fermement convaincu qu' il peat provenir del a formation pampeenne ." 

[ 2 The comparisons with mankind in general must be regarded as carried too far. The state of precise 
anthropologic knowledge concerning many important groups of humanity is as yet very imperfect, especi- 
ally etiologically.] 



hrdliCka] SKELETAL REMAINS OF EARLY MAN 229 

cm. 

Length, maximum 18. 6 

Breadth, maximum 14. 1 

Diameter frontal minimum 9. 6 

Diameter bizygomatic maximum, about 14. 2 

Nasion-alveolar point height, about 7. 5 

Circumference, horizontal 53. 

Circumference, transversal 33. 5 

Circumference, antero-posterior, frontal 13. 2 

Circumference, antero-posterior, parietal 14. 3 

Diameter antero-posterior frontal, about 11. 5 

Diameter antero-posterior parietal 12. 4 

Auricular height 12. 3 

Frontal height 8. 5 

More recently * Lehmann-Nitsche classes the skull of Arrecifes with, 
those of Frias, Saladero, Samborombon, Fontezuelas, Chocori, Mira- 
mar, and Necochea, all of which, with the Carcarafia bones, are re- 
garded as Superior Pampean and hence Quaternary. But these cra- 
nia "represent no somatologic characteristic which is not found also 
in the existing natives of South America and especially in the same 
Pampean and Patagonian regions, and there is even noted a certain 
amount of variation in the different examples." 

Finally, in 1910 the Arrecifes skull is also briefly reported on by 
Mochi. 2 This author shows that the norma verticalis of the specimen 
is ellipsoid; the vault is not chamsecephalic, as classified by Lehmann- 
Nitsche, who must have made an error in his figures, but, as already 
noted by Rivet, it is hipsicephalic ; the face is pyramidal, chamae- 
prosopic, the orbital index low. The "new characteristics" brought 
out "demonstrate that the skull belongs to the cranial group of the 
type known as that of Lagoa Santa, and thereby shows an affinity 
with the dolicho-acrocephalic oceanic type, with the Ellipsoides pelas- 
gicus of Sergi, and with the Quaternary (or regarded as such) European 
skulls of Galley Hill, Engis, and Brno [Brim]. On the other hand, it 
has nothing in common with the types which, rightly or wrongly, are 
considered essentially American." 3 

These conclusions impress one, especially one who knows per- 
sonally the sympathetic author, as very unfortunate. They involve 
in the comparison racial and ancient elements which are wholly 
irrelevant to the specimen under consideration, and largely so to 
the whole subject of man's age in South America in its present hazy 
stage. On what common basis, for instance, can the late diluvial 
skull of Brno be compared with the skull of Arrecifes, even if the latter 

i El hombre f6sil pampeano; in Bol. Ofic. Nac. Est., La Paz, Bolivia, VI, 1910, pp. 363-366. 

2 Mochi, A., Appunti sulla paleoantropologia argentina; in Arch, per VAntr. e la Etn., xl, Firenze, 1910, 
pp. 214-218. 

3 " Non ha invece niente di comune con i tipi che a torto o a ragione si considerano come essenzialmente- 
americani." 



230 BtTEEAtJ OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

should belong to the Upper Pampean ? The statements appear possi- 
ble only from a worker well versed in the anthropology of Europe, 
but less so in that of America, a condition reflected also by the 
works cited. The last sentence quoted is wholly untenable. To 
make this clear, one needs only to point to the recent well-considered 
conclusions of Rivet on the same subject. 1 There are cranial types 
which may be justly considered essentially American, and, as recog- 
nized by Lehmann-Nitsche and as will be shown later on, the 
Arrecifes skull has everything in common with such of these types 
as it approximates in cephalic index. 

The measurements given by Mochi are those of Lehmann-Nitsche. 
Two estimates, one of the basio-bregmatic height and the other 
that of the greatest bizygomatic breadth of the skull, are both too 
high, and others of the facial structures, in view of the defective 
state of those parts, can not be given much weight. 

As to the geologic age of the find, Mochi is inclined to believe, on 
the basis of the alterations of the bone and the calcareous incrusta- 
tion, that the skull "belongs to one of the final phases of the 
Quarternary." 

Examination by the Writer 

What the writer observed in his examination of the Arrecifes 
skull may be briefly stated as follows: 

The specimen is a normal, symmetric, and beyond any doubt 
masculine, skull. The subject was adult but not old. The sutures 
seem to be patent, but the teeth show rather advanced wear. 

The skull has been fairly well reconstructed from about 24 pieces. 
The facial and basal parts are to a large extent defective. Parts of 
the temporals have been rebuilt in mastic, and the same is true of 
parts of the malars; furthermore, the mending substance is seen 
also between the parietals and the occipital, and between the mastoid 
portions and the parietals, slightly enlarging the vault. 

The dorsal surface is covered with grayish, semigranular, calcareous 
incrustation, which measures from a fraction of a millimeter to about 
1 mm. in thickness. Ventrally the bones are covered with similar 
coating but to a lesser degree. The skull is quite heavy, but the 
weight is evidently due largely to the incrustation. Nevertheless the 
bones and the teeth also seem somewhat mineralized inter stitially. 

What remains of the facial structures shows a medium prognathism, 
with a low upper alveolar process (about 1.3 cm.). The teeth, so far 
as can be determined, were of ordinary Indian size and form. The 
dental arch is regular. The palate was not unusually broad nor above 
moderate in height. The malar bones, badly damaged and defec- 
tive, present no special features; marginal processes are of medium 

1 Rivet, P., La race de Lagoa- Santa chez les populations precolombiennes de l'equateur; in Bull. 
etMem. Soc. d'Anihr. Paris, 5™= ser., ix, 1908, p. 209 et seq. 



2fii)LicWj SKELETAL REMAINS Of EAJKLY MAN 23l 

dimensions. The zygomse show masculine development. Orbital 
borders dull; interorbital breadth rather above, size of orbits rather 
below, medium. The naso-frontal suture is patent; the nasal 
articular surface on the frontal looks nearly down. Nasion depres- 
sion moderate; nasion itself situated high, a frequent characteristic 
of Indian skulls in Argentina. 

The supraorbital ridges are well developed, but not excessively so 
for a male, and extend over the medial two-thirds of the supraorbital 
border. The glabella is in a slight depression between the ridges. 
As is frequently the case, there is a shallow depression above the 
distal parts of the supraorbital ridges; none above the medial parts. 
The lateral angular processes are rather stout. 

The forehead is well-arched and quite high, with a single diffuse 
median convexity ; there are no lateral frontal eminences and no crest. 

There exists no post-coronal depression. The sagittal elevation 
is very moderate and mainly perceptible about the summit, in the 
usual position. The parietal bones present no features worthy of 
special notice. 

The temporal regions are not bulging. The temporal crests run 
at a good distance from the sagittal suture, their nearest approach 
to the same being about 6 cm. on each side, and are in no way unusual. 

The occiput (including the posterior portion of the parietal region) 
is slightly uneven, the right side being the larger, but this is prob- 
ably due in part to defects in repairing the specimen; its prominence 
is not above medium. The occipital torus is rather pronounced, 
broad, horizontal, and reaches nearly from side to side of the occipi- 
tal. Depressions below the crest are ordinary. 

The mastoids are good-sized, masculine; the mastoidal crests are 
well-marked. 

Serration of sutures rather simple, as usual in Indians. 

Outline of norma superior approximates elliptical; that of norma 
posterior is pentagonal. 

The face was of medium height and moderate breadth, and in 
general of a type common among Indians of similar cephalic form. 

The thickness of the skull is not excessive; the incrustations pre- 
vent direct measurement. 

Ventrally, there are seen a short and moderately high metopic 
crest and some impressions of brain convolutions. 

Measurements : x 

Vault: em. 

Diameter anteroposterior 19. 

Diameter lateral maximum , 14. 4 

(Owing to the imperfections in the repairing and to the thin crust, each of 
these measurements should be reduced slightly, perhaps as much as 3 mm.)' 

1 The values obtained agree in general fairly closely with those of Lehmann-Nitsche. some differences 
being due doubtless to unlike allowances for the imperfections of the skull. Measurements that would 
have to be based principally on estimate are excluded. 



232 BUREAU OE AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

cm. 

Height, biauricular line-bregma, approximately 12. 4 

Circumference (above supraorbital ridges), approximately 52. 9 

Transverse arc (from roots of zygomse above meatus, across bregma) 31. 6 

Breadth of base between points of mastoids 11. 8 

Breadth between the distal parts of the lateral angular processes of the frontal 

bones 11.0 

Breadth between the points of intersection of orbital border and fronto-malar 

suture 9. 8 

Diameter frontal minimum 9.7 

Diameter frontal maximum, near 12. 

Nasion-bregma arc 12. 4 

Bregma-lambda arc (before repair was probably slightly smaller) 14. 3 

The 'skull shows no trace of disease. 

There is absolutely nothing more primitive in form or size or in 
individual features of the specimen than is generally met in crania 
of the American Indians. 

Conclusions. — As a result of the above examination, and after due 
consideration of the meager data relating to the specimen, it is the 
writer's opinion that, on account of defective information in regard 
to the circumstances of the find, and on the basis of the somatologic 
evidence, the Arrecifes skull should be excluded from all further 
consideration relative to early, i. e. geologically ancient, man in 
America. 

The whole subject of antiquity in this case appears unfounded. 
Holding in view the known facts concerning the Arrecifes skull, it is 
impossible to settle on a single feature of importance which would 
point unequivocally to any great age of the specimen. Under these 
circumstances, the question forces itself: What could not be made, 
in a similar manner, out of such North American remains as the 
Osprey (Florida) skeletons, described in the writer's report on early 
man in North America. One of these specimens is inclosed in hard 
rock, another is more nearly petrified than the bones of a mastodon 
from another part of Florida, and the third is embedded in and con- 
Verted into iron ore. There are, moreover, in our possession, cave 
skulls and skeletons embedded in solid breccia, or thickly covered 
with calcareous deposits, as well as more or less petrified human 
remains from shell mounds. But there is still another question that 
presses strongly, namely: What may be the results of further years 
of similar loose gathering and of so easily satisfied anthropologic 
work ? 



hkdliCka] SKELETAL REMAINS OP EARLY MAN 233 

THE SAMBOEOMBON SKELETON 
History and Reports 

The first mention of the Samborombon skeleton is found, in 
1884, in Burmeister's note on the Pampean formation. 1 This reads 
simply: "A second fossil human skeleton has been found here by Sr. 
de Carles." 

The first details regarding the discovery are not met with until 
1889 in Ameghino's Fossil Mammals of Argentina. 2 On page 47 
of this publication we read: "In 1882 D. Enrique de Carles, trav- 
eling naturalist of the Museo Nacional of Buenos Aires, exhumed 
from the Superior Pampean of the Arroyo de Samborombon a nearly 
complete human skeleton, interred at a considerably lower level than 
some bones of a Scelidotherium and other extinct animals. The 
report on this specimen, which is most noteworthy in many respects, 
has not as yet been published." 

On page 66 this is supplemented by the following: "The Arroyo 
Samborombon, in the vicinity of its confluence with the Arroyo 
Dulce, has a channel 3 to 3^ meters in depth. Its banks, now ver- 
tical, now sloping, are formed, with the exception of the uppermost 
humus layer, which does not reach 40 cm. in thickness, of reddish 
Pampean deposits, in which are intercallated here and there small 
deposits of yellowish-green lacustrine Pampean sediments. The 
latter are nearly always of slight thickness as well as extent. 

"In one of these deposits of the lacustrine Pampean along the same 
Arroyo of Samborombon, at a very short distance from the mouth 
of the Arroyo Dulce, there was found by the traveling naturalist of 
the Museo Nacional of Buenos Aires, E. de Carles, a nearly com- 
plete human skeleton, with the exception of the skull, of which there 
remains only the basal part of the occiput and the lower jaw. The 
bones were found articulated, although the skeleton was divided 
into two parts, the trunk and the superior members with the skull 
being in one, and the pelvis with the sacrum and the bones of the 
lower limbs in the other, at a distance of 1 meter from the first. 
The only visible part exposed by the waters was the skull, of which, 
on account of the exposure, there remains only a relatively small 
portion. 

"This lacustrine deposit or layer in which the skeleton reposed 
was 40 or 50 cm. in thickness; it rested on the red Pampean and 
was covered by the reddish deposits, 1 meter in thickness, belonging 
to the same Pampean formation. 

1 Burmeister, G., Bermerkungen in Bezug auf die Pampas Formation; in Vcrh. Ber.Ges.fur Anthr., 
Ethn., und Urg., Ber in, 1884, p. 247. 

2 Ameghino, F., Contribucidn al conocimiento de los mamiferos fdsiles, etc., pp. 47, 66, S5. 



234 BUREAU OP AMERICAN ETHNOLOGt^ [bull. 5i> 

"In the lacustrine deposit which contained the skeleton, there 
were no other vestiges; but in the reddish Upper Pampean layer and 
a short distance off, if not precisely above the skeleton, de Carles 
gathered the base of the antler of a large deer, now preserved in the 
Museum of Buenos Aires, and the mandible of a species of Sceli- 
doiherium." 1 

On page 85 of the same publication there are, finally, a few words 
concerning the skeleton itself, as follows: "The third skeleton of the 
fossil man from the Superior Pliocene, gathered in the Rio Sam- 
borombon, has hitherto been mentioned only by Burmeister, without 
a single word having been said about its features. It has remained 
undescribed in the possession of its discoverer. 

"I have seen this specimen, though but casually, and observed 
in it some characteristics winch attracted my attention. Among 
these were the small stature of the individual, who probably was of 
the female sex, and the possession of 18 dorso-lumbar vertebra?, an 
extremely rare anomaly in the existing races, but which should have 
been more frequent in the races of antiquity and without doubt was 
a constant characteristic of some of man's ancestors. In the ster- 
num there also exists a vacuity or perforation, I do not now recollect 
at what height, an anomaly that is equally rare in the existing races. 
The lower jaw is in a perfect state of preservation, is strong and 
massive, and evidently belonged to a brachycephalic skull, without 
doubt of the race which Roth encountered." 

These few and ill-estimated results of a casual examination of the 
skeleton serve as a basis for some important conclusions. Referring 
to the Samborombon skeleton and to that of Arrecifes, Ameghino 
says (ibid.): "We hold thus a proof that, during the formation o_f 
the Inferior [ 2 ] Pampean, the Province of Buenos Aires was inhabited 
over the same area, though it is not shown that it was absolutely 
synchronically, by two distinct human races; one dolichocephalic 
and with marked signs of inferiority in the skull, the other brachyce- 
phalic, of a skull apparently more elevated, and representing by the 
characteristics of the skeleton — if the existence of 18 dorso-lumbar 
vertebrae, in the only example with an entire vertebral column thus 
far known, is not an anomaly (which would be peculiarly rare) — a 
very inferior race. The representatives of both races were hip- 
sistenocephalic, and of an exceedingly small stature." 

i A written statement on the subject, made by Sefior Carles to the writer while accompanying him on 
the way to the Ovejero finds, reads as follows: "At the confluence of the Rio Dulce and Samboromb6n, in 
a barranca of gentle declivity and in a small pocket of bluish-green lacustrine mud, probably deposited in an 
excavation in the loess (red Pampean), I found the human skeleton, without any vestige of any object of 
industry. It was divided nearly in the middle into two portions which were at a short distance one from 
the other, but in the same locality and at only a few meters distance (in the red Pampean) I found a piece 
of the lower jaw of Scelidofherium leptocephalum and a part of an antler of a large deer." 

2 Should probably read "Superior."— A. H. 



BkdliSka] SKELETAL REMAINS OF EARLY MAN 2 3 6 

In 1890 a brief report on the remains was presented to the Congress 
of Americanists at Paris by Vilanova. 1 In it we read that "the lower 
jaw is very large; the condyles are slightly oblique to facilitate move- 
ment from before backward, which with the type of wear presented 
by the crowns of the teeth, indicates the frugivorous diet of the indi- 
vidual. The foramen magnum occupies a more backward position 
than in civilized man, winch would give a somewhat inclined posi- 
tion to the body. The sternum presents a natural perforation, a 
very strange thing in our species. Finally, the dorsal part of the 
spine contains 13 instead of the usual 12 vertebrae. These remains 
were found by Senor Carles in the channel of the Rio Samborombon, 
an affluent of the Rio de La Plata, at a very slight distance from a 
nearly complete skeleton of a Megatherium in the Pampean forma- 
tion." 2 

Shortly before this skeleton had come into the possession of the 
museum at Valencia, Spain. It had never been studied thoroughly. 
Notwithstanding this, however, it was later, and gradually with 
more and more definiteness, classified by Ameghino as a representa- 
tive of a race characterized by sternal perforation and 18 lumbo- 
dorsal vertebrae. In 1906 3 the skeleton was attributed to the upper- 
most Tertiary strata. The remarks concerning this are as follows : 

"The remains of man from the Superior Pliocene indicate a small 
race, reaching the height of approximately 1.50 m., with a frontal 
curve of medium elevation, without, or with only slight, supraorbital 
swellings, with a sternal perforation and 18 dorso-lumbar vertebrae. 
These last characteristics are very primitive and this race was made 
a distinct species, named by Kobelt Homo pliocenicus." 4 

Finally, in Ameghino's "Geologia, Paleogeografia," etc. (1910), the 
Samborombon find is apparently connected with that of the Arroyo 
Siasgo; the "race" becomes a definite new species characterized 
(p. 24) as follows: 

"In the Superior Pampean, in the more recent strata of the 
Bonaerean horizon, we encounter the Homo caputinclinatus, of 
stature equally small (1.40 to 1.50 m.) and of 18 dorso-lumbar 
vertebrae, with a front scarcely a little less depressed than in the 
Homo pampseus, but without supraorbital arch; the skull is ex- 
cessively long and narrow (cephalic index in the neighborhood of 66), 
the parietal region is very high, glabella strongly ha verted downward 
but not backward, the nasal bones very broad and without transver- 

1 Vilanova, J., L'homme fossile du Kio Samborombon, in C. B., Congr. int. Amir, 8™= sess., 1890, 
Paris, 1892, pp. 351-352. 

2 De Carles: A piece of the lower jaw of Scelidotlierium. Ameghino: The lower jaw of Scelidotherium. 
Vilanova: A nearly complete skeleton of Mejatherium. 

3 Ameghino, F., Les formations sedimentaires, etc.; in Anal. Mus. Nac. Buenos Aires, xv (ser. m, t. 
vm, 1906), pp. 447-448. 

4 In Globus, lix, Braunschweig, 1891, pp. 132-136. 



236 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY tfitJM,. 52 

sal depression at the root; the orbits extraordinarily superficial, and 
consequently the rostrum very much prolonged forward; finally, the 
foramen magnum is situated in the posterior part of the skull, farther 
back than in many apes, giving the head a position strongly incline^ 
downward.' ; 

In 1907 * Lehmann-Nitsche refers to the skeleton. Ke brings 
forth no additional information and assumes, it seems entirely too 
readily, that "there is no reason to doubt the geologic age of the 
skeleton." In his latest paper 2 he classes it as from the Superior 
Pampean. 

Critical Remarks 

To the writer it appears that there is much room indeed for doubt 
as to the antiquity of the Samborombon human bones, and as to 
the propriety in assigning them to a period preceding or contempo- 
raneous with that of the scelidotherium, a portion of whose lower jaw 
was found at a few meters distance from the human remains and 
in different soil. The original data are, in fact, so inadequate and 
unsatisfactory that on their basis alone the specimen can never 
legitimately receive serious consideration as bearing on the problem 
of man's antiquity in South America, while the anatomic peculiari- 
ties which it shows are without significance in that connection. 

The presence of 18 dorso-lumbar vertebrae 3 and of a perforated 
sternum 4 are both features not very rare in the American Indian or 
in other races, and there is no justification whatever for making 
one sole instance of this nature (even if fully substantiated) the dis- 
tinguishing feature of any race or species. 

The presence of the skeleton 3 feet or somewhat farther below the 
surface, and the close proximity of the spot to two streams, are cir- 
cumstances quite compatible with the theory of a modern burial. The 
completeness of the skeleton and in general the natural relation of its 
parts speak strongly for burial. The separation of the skeleton into 
two nearly equal portions without disturbance of the various bones is 
explainable only by faulting or motion in the earth of the bank, having 
no bearing on the age of the human remains. The fact that the body 

1 Nouvelles recherches, etc., p. 298. 

2 El hombre fosil pampeano, etc., p. 364. 

s There are three such specimens, two Indian and one Eskimo, in the special series of the U. S. National 
Museum and a large proportion of the material has not as yet been examined. See also Rosenberg, E., 
tJber eine primitive Form der Wirbelsaiile der Menschen, in Morph. Jahrb., xxvn, i, Leipzig, 1899; 
Dwight, Th., Description of the Human Spine showing Numerical Variation; in Mem. Boston Soc. 
Nat. Hist, v, No. 7, Boston, 1901, pp. 237-312; and Bardeen and Embryo, in Anat. Anzeiger, xxv, Jena, 
1904, pp. 497-519. See also Regalia, E., Casi di anomalie numeriche delle vertebre nelP Uomo; in Arch, 
p. VAntropol. & Etnol., X, 1880, p. 305 et seq. 

* More common than preceding anomaly. See, ten Kate, H., Sur quelques points d'osteologie ethnique 
imparfaitement connus; in Revista del Museo de la Plata, Ta, Buenos Aires, 1896, pp. 271-272 (found per- 
foration in 16 among 120 Indian sterna in the Museo de la Plata). Also Hrdlicka, A., Description of 
an Ancient Anomalous Skeleton from the Valley of Mexico, with Special Reference to Supernumeraiy 
and Bicipital Ribs in Man; in Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., xn, New York, 1899, pp. 95-96. 



«**"<f. 







hkdliCka] SKELETAL REMAINS OF EARLY MAN 237 

lay in a pocket of lacustrine ( ?) mud has no significance if the body 
came there through burial; it is quite possible that soil there offered 
less resistance to digging than in other parts of the surface. 

It is only too apparent that no antiquity for the Samborombon 
skeleton has been proved, and the specimen can not well serve further 
as indisputable evidence of the existence of early man in Argentina. 

THE CHOCORI SKELETON 
History and Earlier Reports 

The skeleton of Chocori was found in 1888, and is reported for the 
first time by Lehmann-Nitsche in 1907. * It comes from near the 
coast not far south of Miramar, from the same region as the Miramar 
skull described in another place in this report. (See pi. 35 ; also map, 
pi. 21.) The details concerning the find are given by Lehmann- 
Nitsche as follows: 

"About the year 1888 Francisco Larrumbe, an employee of the 
museum [de La Plata], discovered in the vicinity of the small village of 
Mar del Sud, situated on the seashore in the southern part of the 
Province of Buenos Aires, abandoned on the surface of the ground, 
in the midst of the lands between the Arroyo Chocori and the Arroyo 
Seco, at a distance of about 100 meters from the beach, a human 
skull, with some remains of other bones of the same skeleton. . . . 
These remains had been almost completely covered by indurated sand, 
but the wind and water had partially removed the layer and left the 
skull exposed to the extent of some centimeters. In this state it was 
discovered, with the rest of the osseous remains, by Larrumbe, who 
brought away all these specimens. I have these details from himself. 

"The fossilization of the bones can not be doubted; their character 
is identical with that of the bones of fossil animals from the Pampean 
formation. The skull is of a color varying between whitish and yel- 
lowish; some parts are impregnated with a blackish substance. . . . 
The external compact layer has been destroyed in nearly its whole 
extent by weathering in such a way that the surface became rugose, 
and in parts where the destruction has penetrated farther, deeply 
eroded. In the localities not attacked by the destroying agencies, 
that is to say, at small irregularly disseminated points and in more 
extended patches over the whole post-coronal region of the skull, the 
external lamina is covered by very hard calcareous concretions which 
can be removed only with difficulty without damaging at the same 
time the surface of the bone." 

The lot of bones consists of a defective skull with a defective lower 
jaw, and of fragments of a humerus, radius, femur, tibia (?), and a 
rib. Lehmann-Nitsche' s examinations of these remains gave him in 
the main the following results : 

1 Nouvelles recherches, etc., pp. 321-334. 



238 



BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 



[bull. 52 



The vault of the skull is reconstructed in part, but Lehmann- 
Nitsche has full confidence that the reconstruction is accurate . The sex 
of the individual he judges to be feminine. The thickness of the bones 
is ordinary. On account of the defective condition of the specimen 
only a limited number of measurements is practicable. The norma 
frontalis "offers, so to speak, no noteworthy feature." The front 
appears narrow, the parietal eminences are pronounced. The skull 
is very long and relatively narrow; the cephalic index is calculated as 
71.1. Both dorsally and ventrally the occipital bone shows nothing 
in common, with the exception of a deep cerebral fossa, which is 
"extremely remarkable." "The norma basalaris offers nothing 
particular." The norma lateralis shows somewhat prominent supra- 
orbital arches and a deep nasion depression. The frontal curve is not 
pronounced. The skull is very high. The capacity of the skull is 
calculated as 1,528 cc. The lower jaw shows "very pronounced 
human characteristics," the ascending ramus is narrow, the angle 
wide. It is notable by the prominence of the chin. Nothing out of 
the ordinary was discovered in the curve of the body. "It represents 
absolutely the recent European type. The teeth are small." 

As to the fragments of the long bones, that of the right humerus is 
robust. The radius was very powerful and only slightly though regu- 
larly curved. The rib presents no special features; its "constitution 
indicates an individual of a stature above the medium and very 



vigorous. 



Lehmann-Nitsche's measurements of the Chocori bones 1 



Humerus 


Radius 


Cm. 


Cm. 


2.5 


1.65 


1.8 


1.25 


72.0 


75.76 


6.9 


4.2 



Femur 



Diameter maximum (near middle) 
Diameter rmnimum (near middle) 

Index (near middle) 

Circumference (near middle) 



Cm. 

2.8 

2.4 

116.67 

8.0 



In 1910 the Chocori skull was briefly examined by Mochi and is 
reported on in his paper on Argentine paleo-anthropology. 2 It was 
found to be dolicho- and chamsecephalic. The norma superior is 
pentagonoid. As to sex, the author is inclined to consider it mas- 

i Lehmann-Nitsche does not express directly his notion of the age of the Chocori skeleton, but, as on 
p. 300 of his Nouvelles recherches, etc., he considers the Arrecifes skull "seemingly the most recent'' 
of those dealt with in his work, it is evident that he regards the Chocori specimen as more ancient. His 
statement on p. 321 that "the Chocori bones are completely identical in character" with those of fossil 
animals from the Pampean formation — a statement somewhat at variance with certain views of Ameghino 
and Roth, as well as with the writer's observations — points in the same direction. Finally, in his most 
recent publication (El hombre fosil pampeano) he classes the skull with those of Arrecifes, Miramar, etc., 
as belonging to the Superior Pampean formation, which he regards, with the exception of its uppermost 
parts, as Quaternary. 

2 Mochi, A., Appunti sulla paleoantropologia argentina; in Arch, per I Antr. e la JEtn., xl, Firenze, 
1910, pp. 218-220. 



hbdliCka] SKELETAL REMAINS OP EARLY MAN 239 

culine. Looking again on the specimen from a European rather than 
an American standpoint, he considers it related to cranial forms preva- 
lent in the Mediterranean littoral and especially among the north 
European dolichocephals; and probably likewise with the Quaternary 
and modern skulls of the Cro-Magnon type. It corresponds to the 
platydolichocephalic Patagonian type of Verneau, which is found, 
though very rarely, among the existing South American natives. 
In the few measurements given, Mochi seems to follow Lehmann- 
Nitsche, still augmenting, however, the length (he gives 19.6 cm.). 
The basion-bregma height is estimated at 13.3 cm. 

Examination by the Writer 

• 

Through the courtesy of Doctor Lehmann-Nitsche the writer had 
the opportunity of studying the Chocori bones. The examination 
brought out a few additional points but none of great importance. 

The bones apparently all belong to one skeleton, adult and much 
more probably male than female. In color superficially all the parts 
are yellowish- white, with not very marked, scattered, blackish, prob- 
ably manganese spots, such as are frequently seen on skulls of pre- 
historic and even more recent times. None of the bones is decidedly 
heavier than normal, and there is no evidence of any considerable 
degree of mineralization. 

The skull presents traces of a bilateral posthumous compression, 
especially of the temporal regions; on the left, this compression 
extends somewhat farther backward. The foramen magnum and the 
basal parts anterior to it have been narrowed by the compression. 
Thfere is no trace of any artificial deformation in life. In general 
type the cranium approximates the skull of Arrecifes (see fig. 45). 

The left side of the skull has been reconstructed of nearly 20 pieces, 
and the temporal region of that side has been largely rebuilt in mastic; 
a similar rebuilding with the same kind of material has been employed 
extensively along the coronal and forepart of the sagittal suture; the 
neighborhood of the foramen magnum also has been rebuilt. All 
this work has evidently been as well done as possible, without, how- 
ever, rendering the specimen safe as a subject for exact measurement. 

The surface of the skull is nearly everywhere more or less abraded, 
in many places down to the diploe. It is yellowish in color, but where 
scaled or worn off it is grayish- white. Ventrally, it is still yellowish, 
of exactly the shade shown by many relatively modern skulls. The 
facial parts, from slightly below the nasion, are wanting, and the same 
is true of most of the base. 

The skull is that of an elderly person; the sutures appear to be for 
the most part obliterated, though their exact state is difficult to 
ascertain, and the teeth are worn. 



240 



BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 



[bull. 52 



As to the individual features, the nasion depression is marked. 
The situation of the nasion is ordinary, 1,1 cm. beneath the line con- 
necting the highest parts of the borders of the orbits. The inter- 
orbital width is moderate. The orbits themselves were rather small. 

The glabella prominence is well-marked, not excessive. The 
supraorbital ridges are of moderate dimensions, but the whole supra- 
orbital region protrudes somewhat forward and there exists a shallow 
depression above it (2.8 cm. above the nasion). Yet this protrusion 
does not constitute a real supraorbital arch; it is due to a somewhat 
defective advance of the brain and consequently of the frontal 
squama forward. The forehead itself is fairly well arched, but quite 




Fig. 46. Skull of Chocori, norma lateralis. (After Lehmann-Nitsche.) 

low, a type often seen in skulls of Indians. The frontal eminences 
are but slightly pronounced. There is no median crest. 

The sagittal region is oval from side to side, the parietal eminences 
are well-marked, and the outline of the norma superior is accordingly 
pentagonal. The temporal ridges are indistinct but run at a good 
distance (between 5 and 6 cm. on each side) from the sagittal suture. 

The occiput is slightly protruding but the muscular ridges and 
depressions thereon are only moderate. The mastoids are of about 
medium masculine size. 

The thickness of the bones of the skull is moderate. 



hedliCka] SKELETAL REMAINS OP EARLY MAN 241 

A portion of the upper jaw shows a nasal aperture of approximately 
2.6 cm. in breadth; this is a very common dimension of the cavity 
among the Indians. The alveolar process was seemingly largely 
absorbed. 

The lower jaw is defective but shows a square chin, of good prom- 
inence. The bone is of subaverage strength for a male. The teeth 
are moderate in size and were apparently normal in number; they 
show advanced degree of wear. Ventrally, there is but a slight rein- 
forcement of the alveolar arch in the molar region, extending along 
the second and third molars. The genial tuberosities are moderate. 
In general the jaw shows no signs of great muscularity. 

Measurements of the Chocori skull and jaw: 

Vault: cm . 

Diameter anteroposterior maximum * 18. 6 

Diameter lateral maximum, approximately 2 13. 9 

Cephalic index, in the neighborhood of 75.0 

Height, basion^bregma?, auditory meatus — line bregma, about 11. 2 

Circumference (above supraorbital ridges), approximately , 53. 

Nasion-opisthion arc (probably shorter originally) 41. 1 

Lower jaw : 

Height at symphysis, approximately 3. 3 

Height between first and second molars 3. 1 

Thickness at second left molar 1. 3 

Angle, measurement unsafe. 

The observations as well as the measurements show, on the whole, 
features that could be duplicated without any difficulty in modern 
Indian crania. 

Other bones of the skeleton: 

Femur. — A portion of the left bone; surface much worn and appar- 
ently somewhat diseased, but defective character of specimen makes 
it difficult to be certain on the latter point. Is decidedly masculine. 
Shaft, in cross section approximates No. 1 (prismatic) in shape. 
The linea aspera is high and strong. Correct measurements imprac- 
ticable on account of erosion. 

Piece of a long bone. — Difficult of identification, possibly tibia; very 
irregular and apparently diseased surface, but no thickening of wall. 

Humerus. — A portion of the right bone. Very stout and unques- 
tionably masculine. The antero-posterior and lateral diameters at 
about the middle, measure, respectively, 2.85 3 and 1.85 cm. The 
deltoid eminence is long and shows considerable development. 
There is also a well-marked tuberosity at the insertion of the lateral 
head of the triceps, and the ridge marking infero-posteriorly the 

i Lehmann-Nitsche gives 19.4 cm. 

2 May have been originally slightly in excess of this. Lehmann-Nitsche gives 13.8 cm. for the breadth 
between the parietal eminences. 

3 Lehmann-Nitsche must have measured at a different level. 

21535°— Bull. 52—12 16 



242 BUREAU OF AMERICAN" ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

musculo-spiral groove is pronounced. The shaft shows character- 
istic Indian flatness; its shape at middle is intermediary: 1-cc. (pris- 
matic — plano-convex) ; it presents a slight bend forward and inward 
about the middle, but this is nothing remarkable. 

Radius. — Piece of one of the bones representing about the middle 
two-thirds of the shaft. Shows masculine strength. Curve exactly 
like that in modern bones, also shape of shaft and anterior concavity 
about the middle. Interosseous border moderate. Not diseased. 
Dimensions at about middle: diameter antero-posterior, 1.25 cm.; 
diameter lateral, 1.75 cm. 

The bones, especially the lower jaw, indicate more conclusively 
than the skull that the individual under consideration was a male. 

Critical Remarks 

The Chocori remains afford a still further example of ths utilization 
of finds which have no satisfactory geologic and no anthropologic 
claims to antiquity, to swell the ranks of early man in America. 
They have been drawn on for that purpose simply because of the 
adhesion of calcareous matter to the surface of the lower bones and 
a possible slight mineralization of the same. Found by an un- 
scientific museum employee near the surface of the ground, frag- 
mentary and imperfect, restored approximately, presenting no fea- 
tures more primitive than the Indian and none to distinguish them 
from the Indian, and not even mentioned in the literature of the 
subject for 19 years after discovery, it seems that these remains 
should surely be omitted from further consideration as a factor in 
the discussion of the problems connected with early man on the 
South American continent. 

HUMAN REMAINS FROM OVEJERO AND NEIGHBORHOOD 

Reports and History 

The only information thus far published concerning the finds 
of human remains in the vicinity of Ovejero, is furnished by 
Ameghino. The first mention occurs in his paper on the Tetrapro- 
thomo, 1 in a footnote reading as follows : 

"Ovejero is a locality in the Province of Santiago del Estero, 
on the Rio Dulce, at a distance of some 30 kilometers from the 
station Gramilla. The traveling naturalist of the Museo Nacional, 
Sr. Enrique de Carles, found in the uppermost strata of the Pampean 
formation at this locality a series of human remains (crania, long 
bones, etc.) belonging apparently to two distinct races, one of which 
was pigmy. I have entrusted the examination of these remains 
to the distinguished anthropologist, Dr. R. Lehmann-Nitsche, who 

i Notas preliminares sobre el Tetraprothomo argentinus, un precursor del hombre del mioceno superior 
de Monte Hermoso; in Anal. Mus. Nac. Buenos Aires, xvi (ser. in, t. ix), 1907, pp. 115-116. 



hbdliCka] SKELETAL REMAINS OF EAELY MAN 243 

will publish in a short time, the result of his studies in these Anales. 
Meanwhile, however, having observed that the femur of the larger 
race preserves certain very notable primitive features, I have per- 
mitted myself to utilize it for certain comparative observations, 
which will not be without importance in the interpretation of the 
various morphologic peculiarities of the femur of the Tetraproihomo ." 

The femur in question is then repeatedly mentioned by Ameghino 
in comparison (pp. 118, 139, 141, 150-1, 153-4, 156-9, 167, 169-71; 
illustrations: 172-3, 238). In general, Professor Ameghino notes 
many and important similarities between the femur under considera- 
tion and that of the Tetraproihomo, besides other primitive forms, 
while other features of the bone are stated to be more like those 
of present man. 

On page 238 of the memoir there is another reference to a "pigmy" 
race of Ovejero, which reads as follows: 

"The man of the Pampean formation was really of a low stature, 
about 1.50 m., although superior in this respect to the races named 
above [Homo pampxus, etc.]. But there have been races, now 
extinct, of a considerably smaller size. In speaking of the fossil 
man of Ovejero, I said that he was accompanied by the remains of a 
dwarf race. I give here illustrations in natural size of the distal 
extremity of the humerus of a very old individual from the dwarf 
fossil race of Ovejero . . . and beside it the corresponding part of 
the humerus of a natural man of medium stature ... in order 
that the great difference in size between the two may be appre- 
ciated; the stature of the dwarf races of Ovejero could not have 
been more than 1.30." * 

The Ovejero remains are mentioned again by Ameghino in 1910, 
in his "Geologia, Paleogeografia," etc. On page 24 of that work 
the author says: 

"In the Quaternary of Santiago del Estero appear remains of a 
race (the race of Ovejero) which perhaps became isolated at an earlier 
epoch, for it is of very small stature, only 1.30 m., possesses a 
mandible with a strong chin, and has a skull that is short, broad, 
and smooth, presenting a distant likeness to the negrito type of 
Asia and Africa." 

Still another notice concerning these finds, also by Ameghino, 
soon follows : 2 

"In Santiago del Estero (Kio Hondo) [ 3 ] were discovered fossil 
skulls and bones of two very distinct races of man; one strong and of 

1 "There exists an incomplete skull of the same individual of a size also very small, but I abstain from 
entering into the details in respect to this statement for the reason which I have expressed in the footnote 
on page 115." — Ameghino. 

2 Ameghino, F., Descubrimiento de un esqueleto humano fdsil en el pampeano superior del Arroyo 
Siasgo; Congreso Cientifico International Americano; separate publication, Buenos Aires, 1910, pp. 1-6. 

? See Ovejero specimens.— A. H, 



244 BUREAU OF AMERICAN" ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

large stature, which does not seem greatly different from the normal 
form, and the other very small, which seems to show some relation- 
ship with the negritos (?)." 

Before the last two of the above articles appeared in print, the 
writer's attention was Called by Professor Ameghino to the Ovejero 
and other specimens, all of which are in the Museo Nacional. But the 
only information obtained was that "some of the specimens came 
recently from the Superior Pampean and are fossil; while others 
came possibly from superposed, more recent formations." 

With one exception the specimens themselves were not catalogued 
or numbered and there was already confusion of the different lots 
and also confusion as to their particular localities. 

The examination of the specimens yielded no results which would 
justify their acceptance as anything but relatively modern and in 
all probability as ordinary Indian, differing only as to age and sex 
of the subjects. In view of the recentness of the finds, however, 
the writer and Mr. Willis decided to visit the locality. In this 
endeavor we received very valuable assistance at the hands of Pro- 
fessor Ameghino, who sent Sr. de Carles, the collector of various 
remains, to accompany us. Thanks are due also to Sr. de Carles 
himself, who assisted the party in every way possible and who gave 
the writer as detailed an account of the various finds as he was able 
to furnish. 

The data thus obtained are as follows: About 1906 de Carles made 
a visit to the valley of the Rio Dulce to see what objects of sci- 
entific interest could be found there, and during his search near a 
little settlement known as Ovejero discovered outside of a visca- 
chera (lair of the viscachas) fragments of human bones. He dug 
into the viscachera and found other bones, including a humerus and 
two skulls. These remains were about 1 meter below the surface. 
The exact spot was slightly lower than the village and about one 
cuadra from the river. The bones were in soil washed by the 
river during periods of flood. There were found also in the same 
excavation bones of animals, including possibly those of the 
guanaco, with carbon, Ampullaria shells, broken unios, and fragments 
of plain pottery. 

On the journey during which the first finds were made, Sr. de Carles 
found somewhat farther up the river, in a shallow barranca and at 
less depth than in the first case, portions of human bones and a 
skull; these were partly exposed in the face of the barranca. 

On a subsequent journey Sr. de Carles discovered one "petrified" 
human skull and a small part of another, with some fragments of 
bones, in a deep barranca near a place called Sotelillo. These bones 
were near the base of the barranca, which might have been, as far 
as he remembers, about 9 m. below the surface. Nearby, at about the 



hrdliCka] SKELETAL REMAINS OP EAELY MAN 245 

same level, he found bones of ordinary viscachas. Nothing was found 
with the human bones. The locality was on the opposite side from 
Ovejero and about 60 m. from the river. 

At one point near Sotelillo, on a small elevation, de Carles found 
unbroken tosca covering 1 foot or more in thickness; on breaking 
this, several teeth of a common cow were found, segregated; these 
were for the most part entirely within the tosca, which was so hard 
that it had to be broken with a hammer. The specimens are now 
in the Museo Nacional, Buenos Aires. 

La Canada bones : The place here mentioned is situated about mid- 
way between Sotelo and Las Thermas, on the Rio Hondo. Here in a 
barranca facing the river, in a kind of alluvium which is deposited 
unconformably upon inferior araucanian sediments and is much 
inclined, Sr. de Carles found a piece of a human skull, one long bone, 
and fragments of other bones of a human skeleton. These remains 
were "petrified" and when struck "sounded like a bell"; the walls of 
the long bone were stout, leaving but a small medullary canal. The 
barranca was about 5 m. high, and the skull was about 2 m. from the 
surface. The bones lay irregularly. 

A femur of a megatherium was found somewhat farther on, in the 
alluvium at about the same level; there were no other objects. At 
the base of the barranca, in what may have been fallen earth, were 
two small pieces of "petrified" human bones. 

In front of Thermas and on the same side of the river as Ovejero, 
is a locality known as Las Tinajas. No human remains were found 
here, but the skeleton of a modern dog was discovered by Sr. de 
Carles 2 m. below the surface of the ground in the face of a barranca. 
The bones of the skeleton, which were quite fresh, were scattered over 
about 5 sq. m. In these deposits, which are of the same nature as 
those in the barranca at Sotelo, were several bones of Eutatus, some 
of these lying superficially. There were also parts of Dycotilio, sp.; 
these were on the surface and were eroded. When it rises, the river 
reaches these localities. The Dycotilio consisted of only the skull 
with scattered teeth, without lower jaw or other bones. 

Finally, a short distance below Sotelo and about 100 m. from the 
houses of this settlement, toward the river, Sr. de Carles found the 
skull of an infant. A part of the face of this skull was exposed on 
the surface in a shallow depression. There was no barranca in the 
neighborhood. Besides the skull there were parts of bones (perhaps 
of the same skeleton) in bad condition. No objects were discovered 
with these bones. The locality is about 400 m. from the river. 

Observations by the Writer 

The localities from which the "fossil" human bones under con- 
sideration were collected, are from 20 to 35 miles southwest of the 
small railroad station Gramilla. The road to this place passes 



246 BUBEATT OF AMEBICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

through the primeval bosque, or forest. The surface is level nearly 
to the valley of the river; here two large swells in the ground, run- 
ning apparently about parallel with the river, are crossed, beyond 
which is a gentle slope toward the river with here and there a sandy 
surface. Within about a mile or less of the stream the declivity 
becomes more apparent and in places is traversed by branching 
ravines or washes which descend toward the river. These have, for 
the most part, irregular, vertical walls, exposing pinkish homoge- 
neous loess. 

The small and scattered Indian settlement of Sotelo is located to 
one side of one of these branching washes. On the arrival of the 
party at the place the writer undertook at once an examination of 
the walls exposed in the different parts of the wash, and in less than 
half an hour discovered in one of these barrancas, 2 meters from 
the surface, the partially exposed and very imperfect remains of a 
human skeleton (pi. 22). 

In the same and in other barrancas at similar as well as at con- 
siderably lower levels, down to perhaps 4 m. below the surface, were 
found Ampullaria and other shells, all of which, as will be seen from 
Doctor Dall's report (see p. 247) are of living species. Finally, near 
the base of one of the barrancas, on the side of the wash opposite 
the place where the human skeleton lay, was found firmly embedded 
in the loess, with only a small part protruding, half of the mandible 
of a common horse (pi. 23). 

After the deposits and remains had been examined by Mr. Willis, 
the human bones were extracted from the ground. They proved to 
be without doubt the remains of one masculine skeleton and still 
showed to some extent their natural relations ; but for the most part 
they had been moved by the settling of the ground, so that the orig- 
inal position in which the skeleton lay was no longer determinable ; 
numerous parts of the skeleton, including fragments of the bones 
that remained, had been lost through exposure. Nothing was found 
with the bones or in the excavation of about 2 cubic yards of earth 
from below, on the sides, and above them. 

The work of examining the barrancas and of removing the bones 
consumed a large part of one day and, owing to untoward circum- 
stances, the stay of the party could not be prolonged, so that no other 
washes were examined. 

The information was elicited from the Indians of the village that 
the settlement is a very old one and that before the present ceme- 
tery was established, about 100 years ago, the dead were buried in 
various places in the neighborhood. 

The human bones recovered will be described later in this report; 
at this point it may be stated merely that they are partially mineral- 
ized, and agree well in physical characteristics with the Indian. 



BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 



BULLETIN 52 PLATE 22 




HUMAN SKELETON IN SITU, NEAR SOTELO 

Found by Hrdlidka in the loess of a barranca, 6 feet (2 meters) below the surface. 



hbdli£ka] SKELETAL REMAIN'S OP EARLY MAN 247 

A number of shells, about forty in all, were collected from various 
levels of the Sotelo barrancas. Some of these lay very near the 
skeleton discovered by the writer; others were at lower levels, down 
to about 15 feet from the surface. The shells were of two kinds, 
with an occasional fragment of a third, and were seen in many parts 
of the deposits, so that ten times as large a number could have been 
collected without much difficulty. Those gathered were submitted 
for identification to Dr. Wm. H. Dall, who reports as follows: 

"The shells from Sotelo, Argentina, which you left with me are 
Epiphragmophora tucumanensis Doring; Odontostomus dsedalus Des- 
chayes; and Ampullaria cornucopia Reeve, all recent species of the 
region." 

THE OVEJERO SKELETAL MATERIAL 1 

Slcull No. 1. — No. 4850, Museo Nacional (Buenos Aires) collections. 
The specimen is a portion of an adult, masculine, apparently nonde- 
f ormed «alvarium, rebuilt out of about 25 pieces and partially restored 
in mastic. A moderate frontal and parietal depression is the result of 
imperfect restoration. The parts present comprise portions of the 
frontal, parietals, and occipital. The right side is less incomplete 
than the left. 

The bones are brownish-pink in color on both surfaces, with some 
blackish spots. On fracture they are white, though not chalky, and 
seem largely devoid of animal matter. They are not unduly heavy. 
Their thickness is somewhat above the medium for whites, parts of the 
frontal squama reaching 10 mm., but this would not be extraordinary 
for Indians. 

In the median line, 2 cm. above what was the center of the supreme 
occipital line, is a round hole 6 mm. in diameter and about 7 mm. 
deep, apparently made by a drill. This does not pass through the 
bone; it seems to be artificial and not recent. 

The cranium was of fair but not large size and apparently meso- 
cephalic in form. There is no frontal or sagittal crest. The fore- 
head was not low, though its exact build can not be seen. The 
parietal eminences are moderate. The ridges on the ventral surface 
of the occipital are stout. The ventral surface in general is poor in 
impressions of convolutions. Of sutures, nothing is visible except a 
part of the coronal, which seems to have been obliterated in a marked 
degree. 

The foregoing is about all that can be said concerning the specimen, 
owing to its imperfect condition. No feature that can be clearly dis- 
cerned is primitive or striking. 

1 The identification of most of these specimens with the particular localities from which they came could 
not be made with certainty. 



248 



BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 



[bull. 5- 



SJcull No. 2. — The cranium of a female, probably adult, exact age 
not determinable; base and jaws missing (fig. 47). 

The dorsal surface of the specimen is covered with a thin pelhcle of 
grayish-white calcareous matter and a less pronounced deposit of the 
same nature is seen all over the ventral surface. The bone on frac- 
ture is cream-white and probably largely devoid of organic matter, 
but it is not heavy or petrified. 

There is no deformation or disease. Over the glabella and lower 
part of the frontal are seen a few clusters of superficial, small, straight 
or curving grooves, apparently made by the teeth of small rodents; 




Fig. 47. Ovejero skull No. 2 (side view). 

the depth of the most pronounced of these grooves does not exceed 
1 mm. 

The parts present include the frontal (damaged), the larger part of 
the right and a small part of the left parietal, the right temporal 
(defective) and a part of the left temporal with the mastoid. The 
specimen is well reconstructed, so far as it goes, from 13 pieces; the 
right squama is restored in mastic. 

The skull was of moderate feminine dimensions, and in form is 
either highly mesocephalic or somewhat brachycephalic, and of medium 
height. 



hrdliCka] SKELETAL REMAINS OF EARLY MAN 249 

There is a fairly well marked nasion or rather supranasion depres- 
sion, but the whole region is decidedly female in character. The 
nasal process is quite well developed and reaches well down below 
the line connecting the uppermost points of the orbital border on 
each side. The glabella is slightly convex, not prominent, and there 
are small, feminine supraorbital ridges extending over the median 
half of each orbit. There is no approach to a supraorbital arch nor 
is there any depression above the supraorbital ridges. 

The forehead is only moderately high, but fairly convex, with 
scarcely a trace of the- lateral eminences, and there is no frontal or 
sagittal crest, only a barely visible median elevation. 

The parietal eminences are large but not specially prominent. The 
outline of the norma superior was nearly ovoid. The temporal crests 
were not pronounced; the nearest approach of that on the right to 
the sagittal suture is 3.6 cm. The supramastoideal crests are well 
marked, the mastoid itself is slightly above medium feminine; the 
digastric groove is deep. 

Of the sutures, the frontal and the sagittal are plainly traceable 
dorsally but seem to be in an advanced state of obliteration ven- 
trally. Their serration was submedium. 

Internally is seen a moderate metopic crest extending over less 
than one-half of the frontal squama. Impressions of brain convo- 
lutions are few and shallow. 

What remains of the base on the right side shows a glenoid fossa 
of ordinary features and dimensions. 

It will be seen from the above that no part of the specimen pre- 
sents morphologic peculiarities, primitiveness, or anything that would 
be incompatible with the skull of an ordinary Indian. Thickness of 
the bones of the vault such as shown here is common enough in the 
latter race. 

Measurements : 

Nasion-bregma arc, 1 about 11.8 cm. 

Right half of transverse arc, about , 13.7 cm. 

Antero-posterior arc over the middle of the right parietal, near 11.5 cm. 

Thickness of frontal squama, 7 to 8 mm. 

Thickness of the right parietal bone 6 to 9 mm. 

SJcull No. 3. — A large, masculine, adult skull, with possibly a slight 
fronto-occipital deformation. Ably reconstructed from more than 30 
fragments. 

Surface of bones covered, as in skull No. 2, with a thin deposit of 
grayish calcareous matter, not enough perceptibly to affect the meas- 
urements. 

The specimen is quite heavy, but the weight is mainly due to the 
calcareous coating. The bones are apparently largely devoid of 

i Eliminating incrustation. 



250 BUREAU OP AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

animal matter, being generally in the same condition as skulls Nos. 
1 and 2 from this region. 

The left mastoid and neighboring parts appear to have been cut 
out by a rodent with broad teeth; and there are also some cuts, most 
probably gnawings, over the occipital bone and on the fore part of the 
right temporal crest. 

A small depression, evidently a scar, 3 mm. high by 4 mm. broad 
and 1.5 mm. at greatest depth, is seen on the frontal, a short distance 
above the most prominent part of the left supraorbital ridge. From 
the depression run three small radiating lines, not fractures. 

The nasal process is ordinary and the nasal depression fairly well 
marked. The glabella is medium, somewhat less prominent than 
the ridges. The supraorbital ridges are of masculine proportions and 
occupy the median two-thirds of the supraorbital space; above them 
extends from side to side a shallow concavity. 

The forehead is rather low, sloping backward from 4 cm. above 
the glabella. It presents one broad median convexity; no lateral 
eminences present. Above the convexity is a sligkt flattening, approx- 
imately 4 cm. long, possibly the result of intentional compression. 

There is no medio-frontal and only a slight sagittal crest. The 
parietal eminences are well-marked but diffuse. The outline of the 
norma superior was a long ovoid. 

The temporal crests are not specially pronounced; the nearest 
approach of that on the right to the sagittal suture is 5.7 cm. The 
mastoids were rather large masculine. 

The occipital region is somewhat more prominent on the left and 
the frontal bone on the right, so that the skull is moderately plagio- 
cephalic. The occipital crest is pronounced, double-semilunar in 
form. 

The auditory canals show partial occlusion by posterior and also 
anterior exostoses, such as are quite characteristic, especially among 
aged individuals, of the Peruvian Indians. 

The basilar process presents a small pharyngeal fossa; the rest of 
the base is defective. The foramen magnum was in the usual posi- 
tion. 

The sutures of the vault seem to have been quite well serrated ; the 
sagittal is still plainly traceable outside as well as inside. 

Ventrally is seen a submedian metopic crest; there is a paucity, 
with shallowness, of convolutional impressions. 

Measurements: 

cm. 

Diameter antero-posterior maximum, approximately 19. 4 

Diameter lateral maximum, approximately 14. 7 

Diameter frontal minimum 9. 4 



hrdlicka] SKELETAL REMAINS OP EARLY MAN 251 

cm. 

Nasion-opisthion arc 1 37. 4 

Nasion-bregma 12. 4 

Bregma-lambda 12. 9 

Lambda-opisthion, about 12.1 

Transverse arc, approximately 30. 8 

The bones of the vault are rather above medium in thickness, the 
left parietal above and along the squama measuring from 6 to 8 mm., 
the frontal 8 to 9 mm., with the occipital in places less, in others 
slightly more massive. 

All the above features are of ordinary nature, especially when the 
skull is compared with those of Indians, and there is nothing that 
indicates geologic antiquity. 

Specimens marked "Post-pampean fossil man from Rio Dulce de 
Santiage, 2 leagues north of the oaths of Rio Hondo. Carles 2d journey.' 1 ' 

SJcull A. — An adult male skull of an individual beyond middle age. 
Shows marked occipital flattening. The bones are yellowish and 
grayish on surface, nearly white on fracture. They are not mineral- 
ized and the skull is not, so far as can be judged by hand, of more 
than ordinary weight. 

The skull is large and shows no primitive characteristics. The 
supraorbital ridges were not excessive; the forehead is well arched; 
and there is a rather heavy occipital torus. The face and base are 
wanting. 

Measurements : 

cm. 

Diameter antero-posterior from ophryon 18. 3 

Diameter lateral maximum 15. 8 

Height, biauricular line, bregma, approximately 12. 7 

Diameter frontal minimum 9. 9 

STcull B. — This is a masculine cranium of an adult near middle age. 
It is in general well-developed but presents a moderate occipital 
flattening. The bones are brownish on the surface and fragile but 
are not perceptibly mineralized. The specimen has been partially 
restored. The glabella and a part of the right supraorbital ridge 
have been gnawed away to some extent, although the loss of sub- 
stance is not deep. 

Principal measurements: 

cm. 

Diameter antero-posterior maximum, about 17.9 

Diameter lateral maximum 14. 2 

Basion-bregma height, approximately 13. 4 

The supraorbital ridges are of moderate masculine dimensions. 
The forehead is well-arched. A slight sagittal elevation extends for 
some distance beyond the bregma. The mastoids are of good 
masculine size and ordinary form. 

i This is probably slightly in excess of what it was originally, owing to imperfections in repair. 



252 BUREAU OF AMERICAN" ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

The face is wanting. The lower jaw is present though defective. 
It is quite large and strong, and presents throughout ordinary 
Indian-like features. The symphysis is approximately 3.8 cm. high; 
between the first and second molars the height of the bone is 3.4 cm., 
and the smallest breadth of the ascending ramus is 3.6 cm. The 
maximum thickness of the left horizontal ramus (the right being 
deficient) is 1.7 cm. The chin is somewhat square and of medium 
prominence. The whole ascending ramus is strong. The notch is deep. 

Femur. — A portion of a right, adult masculine femur. 

The surface of the specimen has been covered with a thin deposit 
of grayish calcareous matter, most of which, however, has been 
rubbed off. 

The bone was about 41 cm. long and moderately strong, the 
principal diameters at middle being: lateral 2.45 cm., antero-posterior 
3.15 cm., at subtrochanteric flattening, antero-posterior (minimum) 
2.4 cm., lateral (maximum) 3.15 cm. They give a pilasteric index 
of 128.6 and a platymeric index of 76.2. 

The bone shows numerous markings, which Ameghino regards as 
the work of man, but all of which were evidently made by the teeth 
of rodents, especially by those of a rodent of large size, probably a 
viscacha. In this way the large trochanter has been entirely cut 
away, the marks of teeth all radiating from the cavity of the bone. 
Four parallel cuts, all exactly alike, are seen below the edge remaining 
after the cutting away of the great trochanter. Large gnawings are 
also visible on the linea aspera, while still other traces of teeth exist 
in two places on the shaft. These cuts are all transverse. Most of 
them are in the form of V-shaped grooves with one plane wider than 
the other, and were made by a rodent's incisor cutting sideways, a 
frequent practice with these animals. Other cuts are more nearly 
square, with flat bottoms. On the postero-external surface, just 
below the middle, there are two parallel cuts of the latter variety, 
which dispel all doubt as to the rodent origin of the incisors. On the 
linea aspera, 11.4 cm. from the upper edge of the bone, are six 
such flat-bottomed cuts; these are in pairs, each pair being separated 
from the neighboring marks by a slight vertical ridge; and the best 
marked among these are each slightly more than 1 mm. broad. It 
would be impossible to produce this effect with a knife. There is not a 
single feature about all these cuts that points to man's instrument ality ; 
they were produced, plainly, by a sharp-edged chisel-like tooth. 
The region from which the bone came contains the viscacha; in fact 
some of the human bones collected here, as stated by de Carles, came 
from a viscachera. This rodent brings all sorts of bones about and 
into its lair, some of which it probably uses, as rodents in general use 
hard objects, for the benefit of its teeth, which otherwise would grow 
too Ions:. 



hbdliCka] SKELETAL REMAINS OF EARLY MAN 253 

Descriptive notes : The shape of the shaft at the middle, with excep- 
tion of the linea aspera, is nearly round ; this type is more proper to 
youth, but is found now and then in adults, in Indians and also in 
whites. The thickness of the walls is moderate. There was a pro- 
nounced linea aspera,- in part compensatory for a rather marked back- 
ward bend of the shaft. It also reached lower than in some bones, but 
not abnormally so. Its inferior termination presents the common 
form. Besides this backward curve, the bone presents also, above the 
middle, a trace of a bend outward. Both of these features are com- 
mon enough in the femora of Indians as well as in those of other races. 

The specimen shows further pronounced lateral torsion, so that 
the lateral axis of the shaft at the middle and that at the widest part 
of the subtrochanteric flattening form together an angle of about 55 
degrees. Instances of similar torsion, however, are not rare in Indian 
femora. 

There is no third trochanter, and the trochanter minor is in exactly 
the place in which it is found in a modern femur used by Professor 
Ameghino for comparisons. 

The angle of the neck was very obtuse, indicating a male of no 
advanced age. The line of the insertion of the vastus internus and 
the cruralis is fairly well marked and runs obliquely down from below 
the head to the linea aspera, being in exactly the same place as on 
the modern laboratory femur, above referred to. 

The rest of the bone is so ordinary that further description would 
be superfluous. 

Other bones. — Besides the above, the material from Ovejero and 
vicinity seen at the Museo Nacional consists of a not entirely normal 
skull of a child (probably slightly hydrocephalic), and of numerous 
fragments of various bones. A separate description of each of these 
pieces would unnecessarily overburden this paper. They do not 
present one feature of any special morphologic significance, and, 
with all the separately mentioned specimens, may be confidently 
classed as ordinary Indian. 

A number of the larger pieces of long bones show gnawings and 
possibly also claw scratches, some of which may resemble cuts with 
a knife; but, on close examination, especially with a magnifying 
glass, one can generally detect characteristics, particularly occa- 
sional doubling and parallelism of the cuts, peculiar to the teeth of 
rodents. The same phenomenon is frequently observed in Indian 
bones buried in the loess in North America. One piece of a femur 
shows pathologic thickening of the walls. 

The Sotelo skeleton found by the writer. — This specimen (No. 263964, 
U.S.Nat.Mus.) is represented by more than a dozen fragments 
of the skull, four isolated molar teeth with parts of the jawbones 



254 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

adhering to the roots, the larger portions of a humerus, a femur and 
tibiae, fragments of other long bones, some defective phalanges, pieces 
of ribs, clavicles and tarsal bones, and some slivers. 

The bones are dirty-yellowish in color, and all are covered with 
traces, or well-marked pellicles, or small masses of firmly adhering, 
gray, rough, sandy cement, which covers also more or less the medul- 
lary surfaces and fills many of the cells of the spongy bones that were 
exposed through fracture. When the bones were taken from the 
earth, no such hard, firmly adhering coating existed, except on those 
that had been exposed. It was noted specifically that, had the 
proper facilities been at hand, as a brush or water, the bones could 
have been thoroughly cleaned on the spot with ease. The cement now 
on them is the result of consolidation, in drying, of the loess that 
was left adhering to the bones. In some of the medullary cavities 
filled with loess this can still be removed easily and completely, 
except at the ends, where it was exposed to the air, causing it to 
harden and adhere to the bone. 1 

Because of their thin cement covering, the bones, when they strike 
one another, sound like so many potsherds; but they are not visibly 
petrified interstitially and preserve considerable animal matter. 2 The 
enamel of the teeth preserves its natural luster, is not much altered 
in color, although slightly more yellowish, and shows no cracks. In 
a number of places the larger fragments show old surface defects 
and gnawings by rodents. 

Morphologically the lot, owing to its defectiveness, is of but little 
importance. There is enough to show that the bones are those of a 
strong adult man, not below general medium in stature. 

The skull was of moderate thickness. A fragment of the frontal 
shows that there have existed pronounced supraorbital ridges, with 
a tendency to extension into an arch, as occasionally seen in the 
American natives. Nothing can be said as to size or form of the skull. 
The teeth (molars) are of good size and two show considerable wear. 

The right humerus measured approximately 33 cm. ; the principal 
diameters of its shaft at middle are 2.35 by 1.8 cm.; the form of the 
shaft approaches prismatic. There are no specially noteworthy 
features. 

The femora were strong, pilasteric, with very moderate upper 
flattening. The right measures at about the middle of the shaft 
3.3 by 2.65 cm., giving the pilasteric index of 124-5. Other meas- 
urements are impracticable. The shape of the shaft approximates 
the prismatic. 

1 A portion of a humerus of a bird, found with the human bones, looks quite fresh, but the surface is 
already covered with thin grayish-white calcareous pellicles. 

2 Detailed chemical analysis was not practicable, the bones not arriving until six months after being 
sent by express. 



hrdliCka] SKELETAL REMAINS OF EARLY MAN 255 

The tibiae were platycnemic. The right shows above the middle 
a shaft of type 4 (nearly lozenge-shaped in section) and measures at 
about the height of the nutritive foramen 3.8 by 2.3 cm.; this gives 
the low index of 60.5. The form, platycnemy, and other features 
agree well with those of Indian tibiae. 

Racial identification of the skeleton can not be arrived at definitely, 
of course, from material so defective, but what there is all suggests 
a common Indian. 

Critical Remarks on the Ovejero Region Finds 

The examination of the bones reveals nothing that even distantly 
suggests the Negrito. It does not show the presence of two distinct 
races; there is not enough properly to show even one. What there 
is agrees with the Indian. 

The formation in which the bones occur is plainly recent, partly the 
effect of the floods, to which the nearby river, according to local in- 
formation, is particularly liable, but mainly accumulation by the 
winds, which are said to blow across the valley protractedly and 
occasionally with much force. However, this part of the problem 
will be dealt with by the geologist of the expedition. 

Notes on the Locality of Sotelo 
By Bailey Willis 

The old Indian village of Sotelo is situated on the eastern or left 
bank of the Rio Dulce near the boundary between the Provinces of 
Tucuman and Santiago del Estero. There are a church and burying- 
ground said to be more than a century old, and the locality was 
inhabited long before these came into existence. Not far away is 
Ovejero, where human remains were found in a superficial loess and 
at Sotelo Doctor Hrdlicka found a skeleton, which he describes. 
These notes deal with the aspects of the locality and of the forma- 
tion in which the skeleton was discovered. 

The Rio Dulce is formed by numerous streams, which flow from 
the Aconguija Range, that rises to a height of 3,000 meters in western 
Tucuman. There are no notable tributaries from the east. In that 
direction stretch the arid plains of northern Santiago del Estero, 
covered with thorny desert bush and cactus. 

Near Sotelo the valley of the Rio Dulce is between 1 km. and 2 km. 
wide and is sunk perhaps 5 m. to 10 m. below the plain. The right 
bank of the river is a bluff which exposes a section of loess character- 
ized by a distinct pink color. Low bluffs of the same material face 
the river plain locally on the left side near Sotelo, and the formation 
appears to underlie the entire valley. 



256 BUREAU OF AMEEICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

East of the river the superficial formation is of different character. 
It is a light-gray to buff or pinkish sandy loess, composed of fine 
rounded sand grains, mica scales, and very fine clay. It is slightly 
cemented by lime but readily crushes in the hand to a fine dust. 
Sections 3 m. to 4 m. deep show great uniformity and an absence of 
horizontal structure. On the contrary there is the incomplete verti- 
cal structure, characteristic of loess. The formation is thus distinctly 
eolian in texture and structure. The sand and mica scales are derived 
from the river bed and the clay from the pink loess of the underlying 
formation. 

The prevailing winds of the district blow from the north or north- 
west down and across the river valley, where these materials are 
deposited and exposed by the stream. The origin of the superficial 
formation is thus sufficiently obvious. It is an eolian loess, blown 
out of the river bed. 

The original surface of this superficial loess was a slope or plain, 
very gently inclined toward the river. It is a surface which implies 
somewhat uniform and gradual accumulation of the deposit. Dunes 
are absent. At the present time the plain is cut by brandling gullies, 
2 m. to 5 m. deep, which have extended from the river bank back into 
the loess to a distance of one-half a kilometer. The gullies are of 
recent origin and are growing. Since the observation of the writer 
and his colleague was limited to the immediate vicinity of Sotelo, 
these may be of local character and occasioned by a special condition, 
which gave storm rains an opportunity to initiate and develop the 
single system of branching channels that were observed. 

Restricting the inference to this particular locality, there may be 
distinguished the earlier episode of loess accumulation, which was 
general and may be still in action-, and the immediate incident of 
erosion. The latter may have been in progress a score of years or half 
a century, scarcely more, for in this soft loess the growth of channels 
is very rapid, even where rains are occasional. 

Any fossils indigenous to the loess must be older than the gullies. 
This would be true also of any human burials exposed in the side of a 
gully, such as were found, for no burial would intentionally be made 
where it would be liable to exposure. Accidental burials might occur, 
however, in holes in the loess near the temporary head of a growing 
gully, as is explained in a subsequent paragraph in connection with 
the finding of a horse's jawbone. The writer would thus distinguish 
three conditions of occurrence, any one of which might apply to any 
remains found in the loess: (1) Occurrence as a fossil indigenous to 
the loess and contemporaneous with the stratum in which the remains 
occur; (2) intentional burial, younger than the formation, but older 
than the gullies where the bones are exposed by erosion; (3) acci- 
dental burial, which may coincide with the growth of the gullies,, 



3UREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 



BULLETIN 52 PLATE 23 




BARRANCAS AT SOTELO 

These barrancas are west of Gramilla, in the valley of the Rio Dulce de Santiago. Here is shown a jaw- 
bone of a common horse, buried in eolian loess 9 feet (3 meters) below the surface. When found, the 
front end of the bone extended into the bank 7 inches (18 cm.), the rear end 3 inches (S cm.), so that 
the angle only was exposed. 



hkduCka] SKELETAL REMAINS OF EARLY MAN 257 

The relative ages of these possible occurrences would be somewhat 
as follows: The last-mentioned (accidental burial), taking place 
during the growth of the gullies would be the latest, and in the 
writer's estimate, would not be more than half a century old, as the 
gullies are probably not of greater age. The second (intentional 
burial) would probably antedate the cemetery of the church, which 
is said to have been established a hundred years. The first would 
date back to the formation of the deposit. The source of the mate- 
rial in the river bed, the winds to transport it, and the plain of deposit 
are favorably related at the present time. The formation is geneti- 
cally related to them and may be ascribed with confidence to the pres- 
ent geologic epoch. 

In the superficial loess were found the jawbone of a horse and the 
remains of a human skeleton, at points about 100 m. apart, in the 
nearly vertical sides of a gully which passes just south of and close by 
the village of Sotelo. 

The jawbone of the horse lay in the gray loess at a depth of slightly 
less than 3 m. (about 9 feet) below the surface (pi. 23). The front of 
the jaw was buried 18 cm. in from the face and the articular process 
about 10 cm. Only about 1 cm. of the lower edge was exposed when 
found. The loess above the jaw appeared laterally continuous with 
that on each side and in firmness and structure exhibited closely 
similar if not identical characters. Close examination detected 
rounded loess pebbles or concretions of darker color than the mass, 
which did not occur in the adjacent loess and which might indicate a 
secondary deposit. The bone was that of a modern horse. 

If we may regard this jawbone as a fossil indigenous to the loess, 
the latter is more modern than the writer would otherwise infer. If 
it represents a case of accidental burial, it is related merely to the 
growth of the gully and probably somewhat in the following manner. 

When a pool of water gathers on a surface of loess, as it may in a 
shallow hollow during a rain, and sinks in, the water has a capacity 
for mixing with a considerable proportion of loess and rendering it 
fluid. This capacity depends on the fineness of grain of the loess 
particles which may be contained in the thickness of a capillary 
film and thus become part of the liquid. The mixture flows like a 
fluid. When such a mass finds an exit at a lower level, as in a gully, 
it flows out and leaves a vertical pit having a horizontal outlet at the 
bottom. The writer saw a number of such pits in the loess of China 
and thinks they might readily form in the loess at Sotelo, although 
he did not observe any in, the small area inspected. 1 

It is easy to understand that a bone might fall into such a pit and 
become buried by loess blown from the immediate formation. There 

1 They were seen later by both the writer and Doctor Hrdlicka in loess banks in Argentina. 
21535°— Bull. 52—12 17 



258 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

is, however, little to support the suggestion except the somewhat 
doubtful pebbly appearance of the loess above the horse's jawbone. 
The evidence is not adequate to determine whether the jawbone is 
to be regarded as an indigenous fossil or as an accidental burial 
occurring after the deposition of the loess. 

The human remains were found in the superficial loess at a depth of 
approximately 2 meters below the surface. The position and attitude 
are shown hi plate 22, and are described by Doctor Hrdlicka. Accord- 
ing to the writer's observation the loess above them was identical with 
that on each side of and below them. If they were buried here the 
process of rearrangement of the disturbed loess has obliterated the 
evidence of disturbance by producing a structure identical with that of 
the undisturbed earth. The movement of rain water, shaking in and 
rising again by capillary attraction, is adequate to accomplish such a 
rearrangement in a moderate interval of time, and this may be the 
case. But considering the depth at which the skeleton lay, the 
homogeneity of the material above and around it, and the conditions 
favoring loess accumulation, the writer inclines to the view that the 
skeleton should be regarded as a fossil in the modern superficial loess 
formation. It may thus have an antiquity exceeding one or two 
centuries. 

The Tertiary Man 1 

the baradero skeleton 

History and Reports 

In 1889, in his letter to Kollmann, 2 Santiago Roth announced the 
discovery by himself of still another geologically ancient skeleton, 
and the bones are represented as proceeding not from the Superior 
but from the Intermediary Pampean. 

The find, made in 1887, is thus reported: "The place where I 
found this human skeleton is distant about 2 kilometers from the 
Baradero Railroad station and a short distance from the Banado, 
which exists between Baradero and San Pedro. 

"At this locality there was made, in constructing the railroad, a 
cut through the loess, and one of the feet of the skeleton was partially 
uncovered. The remaining parts of the skeleton were still in the 
loess bank, and the bones lay in normal relations, except that the 
head was bent forward so that not the face, but the vault of the 
skull, pointed upward. The lower jaw was wide open. The cir- 
cumstance which impressed me most was that the bones of the 

i The finds under this head are dealt with, as before stated, in the order of the antiquity attributed to 
them, proceeding from that regarded as the most recent to the most ancient. 

2TJeber den Schadel von Pontimelo (richtiger Fontezuelas). (Briefiiche Mittheilung von Santiago 
Roth an Herrn J. Kollmann); in Mittheilungen aus dem anatomischen Institut im Vesalianum zu Basel, 
1889, p. 10-11; also in Lehmann-Nitsehe's Nouvelles recherches, etc., p. 485. 



hedliCka] SKELETAL REMAINS OF EARLY MAN 259 

upper limbs, which were stretched along the sides of the body, 
reached as far down as the knee joint. One hand was united with 
one of the knee joints by calcareous concretions. It is a matter of 
regret that, as is frequently the case in this class of sediments (eolian 
loess), the individual bones were not well-preserved. Although the 
bones lay in general in their true relations, I still do not believe that 
the body was buried but rather that it was gradually covered by 
the dust brought by the wind and storms. The bones showed split- 
ting and other unmistakable signs of weathering, such as are seen 
only on bones which have been exposed for some length of time in 
free air. . . . 

"That the skeleton belongs to the Intermediary Pampean will not 
be doubted. The case is still further strengthened by the fact that 
directly opposite this place is found a bank with the Tertiary oyster 
shells of the Entre Rios formation. Any one who will examine the 
case will satisfy himself of the contemporaneity of these two strata." 

There are no further data by Roth. In 1889, however, the locality 
of the find was visited, under the guidance of Roth, by Carl Burck- 
hardt and Lehmann-Nitsche, and the report on the observations 
made is given by the latter. 1 From this report it appears that the 
Baradero skeleton lay at no great depth, apparently only about 1 
meter, below the surface. The oyster shells collected from the oppo- 
site bank were declared by von Ihering and Steinmann to be "rela- 
tively modern, probably Quaternary and intimately connected or 
even identical with the living forms." And the conclusions in 
Burckhardt's contribution to the subject are as follows (p. 162): 

"Basing our opinions on these data [given in preceding lines], we 
can not accept the ideas of Roth that the marine bank corresponds 
to the formation of Entre Rios and that, consequently, a part of the 
loess and the fossil man of Baradero are Tertiary. 

"We are obliged to hold, on the contrary, that the bank is relatively 
modern, very probably Quaternar}^, and in consequence that the 
fossil man of Baradero is himself probably also diluvial." 

Again it is seen that, as in other cases already referred to in this 
report, the possibility of an ordinary burial from the surface is given 
no consideration. 

Long before the foregoing excerpt appeared in print, the skeleton 
was sold to the Ecole Polytechnique Federal of Zurich, and there in 
1901 the bones were studied by Rudolf Martin. Martin's report is 
included in Lehmann-Nitsche 's work just mentioned; its principal 
features are as follows (pp. 374-386) : 

"The state of conservation of the Baradero bones leaves so much to 
be desired that, notwithstanding my good will, I have arrived at the 

1 Nouvelles recherches, etc., pp. 144-165. 



260 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

conviction that it is impossible to deduce from the study of this 
material any far-reaching conclusions. It would seem that previously 
the skeleton, and especially the skull, were in better state. 

"The petrifaction of all the skeletal parts is complete [?1 ; the loess 
which still adheres to them is so hard and so firmly attached to the 
bones that it can not be separated except by the action of heat or 
acids. . . . 

"The larger part of the skeleton has been submitted to strong 
pressure, as the result of which one of the femurs, for example, pre- 
sents to-day more than 60 fragments. These are solidly reunited [by 
the loess] but not exactly in their natural positions, from which has 
resulted an important modification in the original form of the bones. 
On the basis of this fact, I do not believe that I can follow Roth's 
opinion, which is that the present eroded and cracked condition of 
the bones is due to weathering. In my opinion it is more probable 
that the bones were thus broken within the ground. 

"The remains of the skeleton consist of the following parts: Frag- 
ments of the skull, formed of small pieces of the vault in very irregular 
agglomeration. The majority of the fragments belong to the frontal 
and the parietals," others representing parts of the occipital and the 
right temporal bones. There are present also a portion of the upper 
jaw, two parts of the lower jaw, the shafts of the two femora, the 
tibiae and fibulas (broken and much compressed), and a fragment of 
the left os calcis. 

All the better-preserved parts indicate, according to Martin, that 
the skeleton was that of an adult male, of stature well above the 
medium for whites. 

The remnants of the skull are in such condition that no safe con- 
clusions can be drawn from them as to the cranial form. The bones 
are not thick. The dental arches were evidently massive and strongly 
developed. The lower jaw is stout, short, and high. Below the 
oblique line and in front of the insertion of the rnasseter, there is a 
strong protuberance or lateral mandibular eminence. The surface of 
the insertion of the rnasseter is deeply grooved. The height of the 
horizontal ramus in the region of the second molars amounts to 3 cm., 
its thickness at the same point to 1.6 cm. The molar teeth, all of 
which are preserved, although showing extreme wear, are large but 
their characteristics are typically human. 

"The dimensions of the teeth are without doubt superior to those 
which we encounter in European skulls, but they would not surprise 
us in the Indians of South America, who belong almost without 
exception to macrodont varieties." 

The bicondylar length of the femur has been fixed by Martin at 47.2 
cm., which corresponds to the stature of about 1.70 meters. The 
middle part of the shaft gave the diameters of 3.2 by 2.9 cm. on the 



4 



hrdliCka] SKELETAL REMAINS OF EARLY MAN 261 

right, and 3.3 by 3 cm. on the left; the circumference on the right was 
9.5 cm., on the left 10 cm. The upper part of the diaphysis on the 
left measured transversely 3 cm., antero-posteriorly 2.7 cm., showing 
an eurymeric form. 

The measurements of the shaft of the tibise at about the middle 
were as follows: 

Right cm. Leftcm. 

Diameter anteroposterior 3. 95 4, o 

Diameter transversal 2. 35 2. 35 

Cnemic index 59. 4 56.2 

The shaft, as shown in the illustration (fig. 48) presents in a typical 
form the quadrilateral shape. 1 

The conclusions reached by Martin on the basis of his examinations 
are as follows : 

"It is really to be regretted that this skeleton 
has come to us in so defective a state, because it 
constitutes the most ancient specimen from Argen 
tina, found under circumstances which are suffi- 
ciently well-known. As it is, the results of our 
examination do not afford a basis solid enough to 
enable us to conclude that the skeleton belonged to 
the race of Lagoa Santa. 

"It is possible to affirm, however, without fear 
of being in error, that in divers fragments of the ]h T)bi , i(] ,,,. n _ 
skeleton winch are in our possession to-day, there dero: Transverse sec- 
exists no character which is not equally encoun- tlon of the shaft ' 
tered in modern man, especially that of South America. The man of 
Baradero does not represent, therefore, a human form specifically dif- 
ferent from the man of the present day." 

Critical Remarks 

To the writer the only possible conclusion, from what has been 
learned about the Baradero find, is that the antiquity of the skeleton 
can not be regarded as satisfactorily demonstrated. Nothing has 
been advanced which could be accepted as proof that the case could 
not be one of merely a prehistoric holocene burial. The presence of 
all the parts of the skeleton in their normal relations, as reported by 
Roth, speaks for an intentional, or a speedy accidental, interment. 
Intentional Indian burials in an extended position are more rare than 
those in a more or less contracted one, but they occur in many parts 
of America and are explainable either by a modification of the usual 
custom, due to some special motives, or from inability to bend the 
body on account of rigor mortis. The notion that burials in fossae 
were not practiced in northeastern Argentina, on account of the 

1 Type 4, A. H. This feature, while of rather widespread ancient as well as recent occurrence, is 
especially characteristic of the Indian. 




262 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

absence of implements, is not correct; even if some burials were 
quite superficial or in shallow mounds, the fact does not, as seen 
again and again in North America, exclude other forms of inhumation 
in the same locality, at the same or other periods. No photographic 
study was made of the bones. That they are solidly covered with 
calcareous concretions indicates no great age. Finally, as seen 
from Martin's report, the bones so far as preserved show close morpho- 
logic relations with those of the ordinary American natives. Strong 
and high lower jaws are especially frequent in Argentina. 

Cases of the nature of the Baradero find have no prospect of 
ever being generally accepted as representative of geologically ancient 
man in America. They are full of uncertainties and are incapable of 
furnishing positive proof of the contentions as to antiquity, which 
are based on some of the unusual phenomena connected with the 
circumstances of the find or with the bones themselves. The subject 
of man's antiquity on this continent, as elsewhere, is of so great 
importance that it demands much more than an opinion or assump- 
tion by any observer. It calls in every case for a definite, unequivocal 
demonstration, which permits of no legitimate doubt, and any find 
that does not come up to tins requirement can have no right to further 
consideration as an evidence of man's antiquity. Doubtful cases, 
as that of Baradero, marked by scanty geologic records, poor mate- 
rial, and the absence of all conclusive evidence of great age, are 
really, until definitely excluded from further consideration, obstruc- 
tions to the progress of scientific research. 

HOMO CAPUTINCLINATUS THE ARROYO SIASGO SKELETON 

History and Earlier Reports 

The Arroyo Siasgo skeleton is one of the latest finds in Argentina 
of human remains attributed to antiquity It was made by Carlos 
Ameghino and was reported before the International Scientific Con- 
gress in July, 1910, by Florentino Ameghino. 

The report was published shortly afterward * and, as it is rather 
inaccessible, the contents are given here with more detail that is per- 
haps absolutely necessary. Professor Ameghino says : 

"The year 1909 and that part of 1910 which has already passed 
have been particularly fruitful in finds relating to fossil man in the 
Argentine territory. 

"It would seem that we have assisted at the awakening from ultra 
tumba of the ancient and now extinct species and races of man which 
inhabited our lands, in order that they might present themselves, 
even though only with their inanimate bones, at the celebration of the 
Centenary. 

i Descubrimiento de un esqueleto humano f6sil en el pampeano superior del Arroyo Siasgo; Congreso 
Cientifico International Americano; Separate publication, Buenos Aires, 1910, pp. 1-6. 



hrdliCka] SKELETAL REMAINS OF EARLY MAN 263 

"In Santiago del Estero (Rio Hondo) fossil skulls and bones of 
two very distinct races of man were discovered; one strong and of 
large stature, apparently not widely different from the normal form, 
and the other very small and seeming to present some relations with 
the Negritos ( ?).[*] At Necochea new examples of Homo pampxus 
were gathered. To the north of the [Arroyo] Moro, fronting on the 
Laguna Malacara, some 60 km. north of Necochea, there were recently 
discovered in the ancient Pampean two skeletons with their skulls, 
belonging not to a race merely, but to a real (verdadera) extinct 
species, of reduced stature, with only four lower molars in place 
of five (the posterior being absent), and possessing a lower jaw with- 
out a chin, like that of Spy and Krapina. And in the Superior Pam- 
pean of Arroyo Siasgo there was discovered a skeleton of human 
type, but exceedingly primitive and as simian, or perhaps even 
more simian, than the Homo pampseus. 

"The last-mentioned species is named by me Homo caputincbinatus.' n 

The specimen representing the species "is a fossil human skeleton, 
found in January of the present year by the traveling naturalist of 
the Museo Nacional, Sr. Carlos Ameghino, in a barranca of the 
Arroyo Siasgo, some 300 meters from the house of the estancia 'La 
Georgina' belonging to Sr. J. M. Mendez, in the Department of 
Ranchos, near the station Villanueva of the Southern R. R. 

"With the object of satisfying myself as to the position which 
the skeleton occupied, I visited the locality about the middle of 
last March. 

"The Arroyo Siasgo is a small affluent of the Rio Salado. . . . 

"Before coming to the Salado, which it reaches through a very 
narrow channel, the valley of Siasgo broadens in an extraordinary 
manner, forming a deep depression 4 km. long and 2 km. broad. 
This hollow, now dry, was in a recent epoch a lake which dried up, 
its waters draining into the Salado. 

"This depression is limited on the east by a barranca, about 8 
meters high, against which broke the waters of the lake. This 
barranca is a part of the remnant of an ancient and high table-land, 
which, in other times, separated the Siasgo from the Salado ; the 
most elevated part of it has already disappeared. 

"The terrane of this table-land imeseta) is formed by a layer of 
vegetal earth, some 50 cm. in thickness, which passes gradually 
into a light eolic loess of reddish-gra}' color, that somewhat lower 
becomes more compact. 

"This loess deposit of the barranca of the Siasgo was described 
in a masterly manner in 1863 b}^ Burmeister, who encountered in 
it many fossils, now preserved in the Museo Nacional of Buenos 

[! The Ove.iero specimens (q. v.).] 



264 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

Aires. One carapace of a Glyptodon, nearly complete, was found, 
Burmeister says, only 1 foot below the surface of the ground. 

"The human skeleton was found buried in this unmoved deposit 
of loess, at a depth of 1.80 meters from the surface of the ground, 
deeper than many remains of Glyptodon, Sclerocalypus, Eutatus, etc., 
which we have collected in the same locality. 

"The skeleton consists of a skull, of which the lower jaw and the 
facial parts are missing, and of various long bones, numerous ver- 
tebras and ribs, the sacrum, the pelvis, and a number of the bones 
of the feet, among them a nearly intact astragalus. 

"The long bones indicate that the individual was still young; 
compared witn those of the actual man, they would correspond to one 
of 16 to 18 years of age. Moreover, it was an individual of very 
reduced stature, probably not greater than 1.40 meters. 

"The bones of the skeleton present very notable peculiarities, of 
which for the present I shall mention only the superficial form of 
the 'ectal' articular facet of the astragalus, which is not deeply 
concave as in actual man, but much flatter; and the form of the 
femur, whose linea aspera is scarcely visible, and which presents 
toward the middle of its length a nearly circular transverse section, 
like the femur of many apes. 

"The skull is excessively small and very dolichocephalic. . . . [*] 

"It is very low anteriorly and excessively high posteriorly, so 
that the vertex falls far back of the bregma, more or less in the pos- 
terior two-thirds of the parietals, in which characteristic the skull 
coincides with the Homo pampxus. 

"I have not measured the cranial capacity, but I calculate that it 
does not surpass 1,000 c. c. 

"Posteriorly there is no torus occipitalis, the inion region is not 
prominent but rounded and all the muscular insertions are but little 
developed. 

"The sutures, including the lambdoid, are exceedingly simple 
and nearly straight. The mastoids are very small. The frontal 
region, much depressed, rises gradually toward the back, and the 
vault continues to rise in this way up to the vertex. 

"The frontal bone is very prominent by reason of its elongated 
and narrow form, in which it presents a remarkable similarity to 
the formation proper to the Diprotliomo. In a straight line, with- 
out paying regard to the curve, it measures 106 mm. in antero- 
posterior, and 98 mm. in its greatest transverse diameter. The 
post-orbital narrowing is very slight, the minimum transverse diam- 
eter at this point being 91 mm., only 7 mm. less than the maximum 
transverse diameter. 

I 1 The two measurements that follow are those of the writer.] 



hbdliCka] SKELETAL REMAINS OP EARLY MAN 265 

"From this it follows that the anterior part of the front is pro- 
portionately very broad, in which it differs absolutely from the 
Homo pampseus which on the contrary possesses a frontal region 
that is exceedingly narrow. The front of this skull appears thus 
not only very long and narrow in the back but also of a very char- 
acteristic rectangular contour. 

"The whole frontal appears arched from before backward, form- 
ing a convex curve not very pronounced but very regular. 

"This regularity extends also to the anterior supraorbital part, 
which has no vestiges of the supraorbital ridges nor of the trans- 
verse depression which accompanies the same, but the frontal emi- 
nences are plainly visible. 

"Of the post-glabellar depression there remain also no visible 
vestiges nor is there any visor (visera). The glabella does not 
protrude but curves notably downward; the interorbital part of 
the frontals descends especially low below the superior border of 
the orbits, but its inferior border does not present a backward inver- 
sion, so that the nasion did not lie in a transverse depression as in 
modern man; by this characteristic this new type of man accords 
with the Diprotliomo and the Homo pampseus. 

"The conformation of the orbits is peculiar; to judge by the 
superior part, which still exists, and by the arched border, they 
appear to have been notably more high than broad, as in the Homo 
pampseus; moreover, they are excessively superficial, their roof forming 
with the external surface of the frontal region an angle that is nearly 
obtuse; they are much more superficial than in the Diprothomo. 

"The posterior part of the skull is not less singular. At the first 
view, the eye is struck with the fact that the occipital aperture is 
situated more posteriorly than in existing man. The occipital 
bone, instead of being continued by a long, more or less horizontal 
space back of the foramen magnum, as is the general rule, ascends 
rapidly, so that the opening appears as if located nearly in the pos- 
terior part of the skull, in a way more accentuated than in many 
apes." 

In the following paragraphs Ameghino speculates as to the "orienta- 
tion of the skull during life." The conclusion is that "a skull with 
a sloping front directed downward and an occipital opening located 
nearly in the posterior part of the specimen, indicates a head which 
in life must have presented a notable grade of inclination downward. 
It is for this reason that I designate the species, now completely 
extinct, by the name of Homo caputinclinatus ." 

In the latter part of 1910 a brief report on the Arroyo Siasgo 
remains is made by Mochi. 1 This author says he was able to exam- 

1 Mochi, A.. Appunti sulla paleoantropologia argentina; in Arch, per VAntr. e la Etn., XL, Firenze, 1910, 
pp. 250-253. 



266 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

ine the skull only cursorily, a fact which doubtless accounts for his 
failure to notice that the present color of the specimen is due to its 
having been treated with a preservative, that it presents a post- 
humous deformation, and, what is even more important, that it be- 
longs to the skeleton of a child. 1 He further regards Ameghino's 
reference to 18 lumbo-dorsal vertebrae as applying to this skeleton, 
while it relates to that of Samborombon, which Ameghino includes, in 
the paragraph that Mochi quotes on page 250, with the Arroyo Siasgo 
skeleton in the new species of Homo caputinclinatus. Finally, the 
hasty examination is also probably accountable for the one or two 
errors that have entered into the figures of Mochi's measurements. 
These are given as follows : 

cm. 

Length 16. 6 

Breadth 11. 5 

Height (basion-bregma) 13. 0(?) 

Diameter frontal minimum 10. 2 

Mochi recognizes that the skull is artificially deformed, in the cir- 
cular or Aymara fashion. The "far back" situation of the foramen 
magnum and the rapidly descending roof of the orbits, insisted on by 
Ameghino, "are both caused by the orientation of the calvarium." 
With an approximation to the ordinary anthropologic posing of the 
specimen ' ' the foramen magnum assumes a position which has nothing 
extraordinary in a skull with a slightly flattened occiput, and the 
roof of the orbits comes to lie in a much different way from that in 
Ameghino's orientation." 

"On the whole," Mochi well concludes, "this species seems to me a 
very doubtful one." 

Examination by the Writer 

Through the courtesy of Professor Anieghino, the writer was able 
to examine all that remains of the Siasgo skeleton. The results, as 
will appear, differ in some very essential points from those quoted 
above. 

It is the skeleton of a child, probably not 12 years of age. 

The portion of the skull remaining (pi. 24) consists of only the vault, 
without the facial parts and most of the base; the vault presents a 
perceptible degree of Aymara deformation. 2 

There is also a posthumous, unrestored depression, affecting the 
posterior two-thirds of the lateral part of the right parietal and 
diminishing the maximum breadth of the skull by 2 or 3 mm. 

The skull would be small for an adult but is not so for a child. 

1 The latter error is possibly due to the thickness of the hones of the vault, which resemble those in an 
adolescent, to the absence of all the parts(teeth , face, base) that indicate the age of a skull, and to failure 
to see the remaining parts of the skeleton. 

2 The photograph does not afford a good view of this feature, which is plainly recognizable in the specimen. 






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hrdlicka] SKELETAL REMAINS OF EARLY MAN 26 7 

It is brownish and yellowish in color, but has been treated with 
a preservative. It does not seem to be devoid of animal matter 
to a great extent, though it may be somewhat mineralized. Mor- 
phologically, beyond the effects of the deformation and the lack of 
development due to youth, the specimen presents no peculiar fea- 
tures. This statement applies equally to every other part of the 
skeleton. 

The thickness of the bones of the vault is medium, or slightly 
above, for a child. The sutures show only slight serration and all 
are patent. There are six unimportant small to medium-sized 
Wormian bones. The pterions are both of the H variety and of 
moderate width. 

The mastoids (right) are fairly well developed for a young subject 
and of ordinary form. The floor of the auditory meatus presents on 
the left a large, on the right a small, dehiscence; these defects, 
rather common in all Indians, are of great frequency in those of Bolivia 
and Peru. 

The frontal process and the upper parts of the orbits show childlike 
characteristics, otherwise no unusual features. The former is still 
divided inferiorly for some distance by a remnant of the metopic 
suture. 

Owing to the deformation of the vault, the foramen magnum 
appears as if situated farther backward than usual; but this feature 
is commonly observed in skulls with Aymara deformation. 

Principal measurements of the Siasgo cranium: 

cm. 

Diameter anterior-posterior maximum 16. 9 

Diameter lateral maximum 11. 5 

(but was larger; is diminished somewhat by both artificial and posthumous 
deformation.) 

Height, auditory canals line to bregma, approximately 11. 7 

Circumference (above supraorbital ridges) 46. 1 

Nasion-opisthion arc 35. 4 

Nasion-bregma 11. 9 

Bregma-lambda 11. 8 

Lambda-opisthion 11. 7 

Transverse arc 27.1 

Diameter frontal minimum 9.2 

The remaining parts of the skeleton have been treated for the most 
part, as has the skull, with a solution of some preservative. Those 
treated thus are brownish-yellow; those not treated, light-gray. 

Pelvis. — The three constituents of the ossa innominata are as yet 
entirely separate, and as the rami of the ischium and the pubis com- 
monly unite about the tenth year, the youth of the subject is evident. 
The pubic, crest, ischial, and sacral articulation epiphyses are wanting 
as well as those of the acetabulum and of the border in front and 
above it. The bones are of fair strength and usual form. 



268 BUREAU OP AMERICAN" ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

Ribs. — These are light, dry, quite easily broken and apparently 
not mineralized in any degree. They indicate a child. They are 
all regularly formed. A few appear slightly thicker than usual/ 
owing largely, if not entirely, to the age of the subject. 

Vertebrae; sacrum. — There are present 10 pieces, representing sev- 
eral dorsal, lumtear, and sacral vertebrae. All the epiphyses are 
wanting. The sacrum is represented only by separate, immature 
segments. The right lateral mass of the fifth lumbar is large, sacral- 
like, articulating with the uppermost segment of the sacrum; later 
in life it would doubtless have become part of the latter. The neural 
canal of this vertebra measures from above 2.5 cm. in breadth and 
1.4 cm. in its antero-posterior diameter. 

Femora. — None of the epiphyses are attached; the bones are light 
with no fossilization perceptible. The shape of the shaft approximates 
cylindrical, which is typical of childhood. Its antero-posterior bend 
is very moderate, the lateral slight. The external lip of the sub- 
trochanteric flattening is well differentiated. The right bone shows 
on its posterior aspect four fresh euts. 

Measurements of the Siasgo femora: 

Right. Left, 

cm. cm. 

Length, minus epiphyses (?) near 34. 

Diameter antero-posterior at middle 2. 1 1. 95 

Diameter lateral at middle 2. 2. 05 

Pilasteric index 105. 92. 9 

Diameter maximum, at upper flattening 2. 65 2. 60 

Diameter minimum, at upper flattening 1. 95 1. 95 

Platymeric index 73. 6 75.0 

Tibiae,. — Left bone only, without epiphyses. Shape of shaft pris- 
matic. Anatomically without special features. Head deficient. 
Surface of bone eroded as if by roots. 

Measurements of the Siasgo tibia: 

cm. 

Diameter antero-posterior at middle 2. 5 

Diameter lateral at middle 2. 

Index at middle 80.0 

Diameter antero-posterior at the nutritive foramen 2. 8 

Diameter lateral at the foramen 2. 2 

Index 78. 6 

Ulna. — Fragment, upper epiphysis wanting; lower? No special 
features. 

Radius. — Part of the proximal extremity; epiphysis wanting; no 
special features. 

Astragalus. — The bone measures 4.75 cm. in its greatest length, 
3.85 cm. in its greatest breadth, and 2.60 cm. in its greatest height 

i One of the longer ribs measures at middle of the shaft 0.65 x 0.9 cm : another, from a slightly lower part 
of the thorax, 0.4 x 1.4 cm., and still another, from about the middle of the thorax, 0.6 x 1 .0 cm. 



hrdlicka] SKELETAL REMAINS OF EARLY MAN 269 

(the last-named measurement taken with the specimen laid on the 
border of the table). The posterior facet for the calcaneus is prob- 
ably less concave than usual in adults. The right astragalus is 
defective and quite useless for study but was apparently similar in 
size and form to that of the left side. 

None of the above-mentioned bones present any intravital injury 
or disease. 

Critical Remarks 

The fundamental errors of the original description of the Siasgo 
skeleton are shown plainly enough in the preceding pages. The age 
of the subject was much overestimated, and through lack of com- 
parative material, no doubt, features of the skull due to artificial 
shaping were mistaken for natural characteristics and made the basis 
of a new species of man. 

The remains consist of a few very ordinary, immature, and defec- 
tive bones, which show little if any fossilization and, it is safe to 
say, would not be recognized as exceptional if placed with a series of 
similar remains from, for instance, the graves of Bolivian Indians. 

However, there is other good evidence that the skeleton in question 
has no claims whatever to antiquity. On his return from the Sierra 
Ventana Mr. Willis visited the locality of the find. He was shown 
by the owner of the hacienda the exact spot from which the bones 
came and which was still plainly in view. His observations are 
embodied in the pages that follow. 

Observations on the Arroyo Siasgo Find 
By Bailey Willis 

The Arroyo Siasgo Valley is a peculiarly broad and shallow but 
winding hollow in the Pampa. It has been described by Ameghino 
as a lake basin and may have been partially rilled at times of excessive 
rains, although the writer saw no shore features, as an established 
lake would make. The valley itself is an abandoned stream channel 
widened by wind. It lies in the east-central part of the Province of 
Buenos Aires in that broad lowland through which the Rio Salado 
winds. The region is one in which drainage channels are but slightly 
developed and which has exhibited extensive flooded areas during 
rainy years up to a recent time, when the construction of drainage 
canals provided channels in which the waters might flow away. The 
writer does not recall ever having seen a more perfect plain or one 
from which evidences of erosion were more completely wanting. From 
the vantage point of the railway train the plain could be scanned for 
many leagues and exhibits everywhere the same dead level. Even 
the long hollows, characteristic of much of the wind-sculptured sur- 
face of the pampas, are here developed in only an insignificant degree. 



270 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

The Rio Salado flows in a meandering channel whose character 
is shown in the photograph (pi. 25). It is peculiar that the river is 
like a canal, flowing between steep banks, apparently in perfect equi- 
librium and of uniform regimen. The fall seems to be just sufficient 
to carry off the waters and the sediment which they bring, and there 
is no evidence of flood waters, sufficient at least to rise above the 
banks and spread out on the flood plain. Thus the level grassy 
surface of the parnpas stretches straight to the river bank without 
elevation or depression, and one does not realize that the river is there 
until one is upon it. 

Within sight of the station General Belgrano, but at a distance of 
an hour and a half's drive from it, there is a low ridge which is a 
conspicuous feature in the level plain. From near the surface of this 
ridge, on the estancia "La Georgina" belonging to Senor George M. 
Mendez, Doctor Ameghino found a human skeleton. Guided by his 
directions, the writer visited the spot on June 23, 1910, for the pur- 
pose of studying the topographic and geologic relations in which the 
skeleton had been found. 

The central features of the locality are the ridge and the hollow 
known as that of the Arroyo Siasgo, which winds along its southern 
base. The writer approached the ridge from the east and followed 
its northern base for about 3 km. It is not continuous, but consists 
of three or more long low elevations. The northern slope is gentle, 
sinking imperceptibly into the perfectly level plain, which stretches 
away to the northward. At the estancia "La Georgina" the ridge 
was crossed at a point where it sinks away to the westward, and the 
southern slope and the Arroyo Siasgo came into view (pi. 26). The 
southern slope of the ridge is relatively steep. At the top it shows 
effects of wind erosion and portions of the grass-covered margin have 
slid down. Toward the bottom it is gentler and passes into the 
hollow by a curve similar to that of the lower part of an earthy talus. 
It is covered with vegetation. Near the top the sod is broken by 
sliding and undercut by the wind. The Arroyo Siasgo is a winding 
hollow. Water from a recent rain was standing in pools in the lowest 
parts of it, but it was all overgrown with herbage. The width of the 
hollow is somewhat indefinite, since it has no well-defined southern 
bank. From the lowest portions, which are below the general level 
of the plain, there is a very gentle rise southward for perhaps a kilo- 
meter before the uniform altitude of the plain all about is reached. 

The hollow and the hill have a definite relation to each other. The 
hollow is a winding depression; the hill is a winding ridge which 
closely follows its northern side. According to an estimate based 
on observation in driving past and in walking over the hill and through 
the hollow, the volume of the one above the plain is about equal to 
that of the other below the plain. The position of the hill is to 



hedliCka] SKELETAL REMAINS- OP EARLY MAN 271 

leeward of the hollow, the prevailing winds of the region being from 
the south or southeast, and the southern scarp of the ridge exhibits 
effects of wind erosion. It is evident that the material of the hill 
was blown out of the hollow. 

An examination of the material composing the hill shows that it 
differs in structure and firmness from the Pampean terrane of the 
plain. It is a perfectly homogeneous fine-grained loess, which is 
devoid of stratification. When damp it is light-to-medium brown, and 
dries out whitish to pink. Films of a white calcareous deposit ramify 
all through it and grit against the knife, but there are no distinct lime 
concretions or tosca. The material of the Pampean terrane, which 
forms the plain and in which the hollow is excavated, is precisely 
similar in fineness of grain, but is darker colored and more compact. 
When blown into dust it would yield the loess of the hill. 

The writer was accompanied over the ground by D. Cesar Pirez, 
the majordomo of the estancia, who stated that in sinking a well, 
which is marked by the windmill that may be seen in the photo- 
graph (pi. 27), there was first penetrated the black superficial soil, 
then 2 m. of loess, and below this again black soil about 30 cm. thick, 
overlying the brown earth of the Pampean terrane. The well is 
located below the summit of the ridge at an elevation which probably 
does not exceed 2\ or 3 m. above the general level of the plain, and 
it is thus reasonably certain that the loess of the ridge lies upon the 
black soil of the plain, which was buried as the loess dune formed. 

The conditions under which such a dune may form depend on the 
existence of a steep accident in the surface. The wind, sweeping 
across a hollow, is diverted upward in striking a steep bank on the 
farther side and forms an eddy at the summit of the bluff. In this 
eddy sand or loess is deposited. The winding hollow resembles an 
erosion channel and . the development of the dune was occasioned, 
according to the writer's understanding of the circumstances, by the 
abandonment or drying up of the stream channel which it represents. 

According to this interpretation the ridge is a local feature which 
has been built upon the plain in comparatively recent time. 

Upon the summit of this ridge, about the highest point, were found 
the human remains which C. Ameghino excavated. The exact spot 
is indicated in the photograph (pi. 28), directly beneath the figure 
of Seflor Pirez. The hole was partially refilled but may be easily 
distinguished. According to Seflor Pirez and judging from the posi- 
tion of the hole, the body lay on the southern slope, about 2 m. 
below the highest level of the plain, but covered by not more than 
half a meter of brown earth in place. The body lay with the head to 
the north, the feet toward the south, and in a somewhat inclined 
position. The head remained at a slight distance from the rest of the 
body, which seemed to have slid down the hill. Seflor Pirez remarked 



272 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

that he had noted at one side of the excavation a small quantity of 
black earth, like a pencil in an upright position, which was probably- 
due to a root. Sefior Pirez said that he was not present when the 
bones were disinterred but learned the facts when Doctor Ameghino 
made a second visit for the purpose of searching for some missing 
portions. 

A reasonable interpretation of these facts, as it seems to the 
writer, is that the body was buried on the summit of the hill in the 
soft eolian loess and in the position which would naturally be chosen 
for such a purpose; that in course of tune the earth in which it 
was buried slid somewhat, as it is evident that much of the face of 
the hill at this immediate point is, even now, sliding. Some portion 
of the earth which was originally above the body may have been 
removed by wind erosion, and possibly the discovery of the bones was 
facilitated by this fact. There is nothing in the topographic or geo- 
logic relations, nor in the situation in which the bones were found, to 
indicate that the skeleton is of any antiquity. 

HOMO SINEMENTO — ARROYO DEL MORO; NECOCHEA 

The Arroyo del Moro Find 

The Arroyo del Moro, or more properly the Laguna Malacara, find 
was made sometime in the earlier half of 1909 by Jose" Oliva, a sailor 
guarding a stranded chata 1 on the desolate beach about 7 miles north- 
east of the Arroyo del Moro, some 35 miles northeast of Necochea. 
As he told our party, he was out with his wife and boy hunting, and 
in crossing one of the flats among the sand dunes, situated about 15 
minutes walk north of his temporary home and at a somewhat shorter 
distance from the Laguna Malacara, his wife and he saw on the ground 
from a distance a white rounded object, which they took at first for 
a large ostrich egg, but which on closer view was found to be the top 
of a human skull. The sailor dug out the skull with a knife, and when 
an opportunity presented itself he sent a notice of the find to the 
gardener, L. Parodi, at Necochea, who was known to be interested in 
bones in behalf cf the Museo Nacional at Buenos Aires. The infor- 
mation reached also Dr. E. Cavazutti, an amateur local collector of 
Necochea. 

The place was then dug over by the sailor, his boy, and the gardener, 
who found two skeletons; what was saved of these came through 
Doctor Cavazutti to the Museo Nacional, where the specimens, espe- 
cially the skulls, were repaired and partially reconstructed. 

Later on the locality was visited by Florentino and Carlos Ameghino, 
who collected over the same flat numerous fossils and also many 
worked stones of the dark variety. 2 

1 A flat-bottom boat. The chata in question is a stranded steel barge. 

2 See section on Archeology. 



hrdliCka] SKELETAL, REMAINS OF EARLY MAN 273 

The human remains under consideration were recently described 
by Professor Ameghino, and they have been made by him the repre- 
sentatives of still another South American species of man, namely, 
the Homo sinemento. 

They are first mentioned in print in a commemorative number of 
"La Nacion." * Following a statement concerning the Homo pam- 
pseus, we read the following (p. 24): 

"From the same epoch as the H. pampseus or perhaps somewhat 
more recent is the Homo sinemento, which, retaining some very primi- 
tive characteristics, has in other respects surpassed in its evolution 
Homo sapiens. Its representatives were pigmies (1.40 m.), of a very 
prognathic rostrum, of lower jaw without chin, as in Homo primi- 
genius, but with orthognathic and very regular denture, and without 
the last molar. It is a species which disappeared without leaving 
descendants." 

Somewhat later, on the occasion of the meeting of the International 
Scientific Congress in Buenos Aires, the find was reported and pub- 
lished more in detail. The following principal statements were made 
by Professor Ameghino : 2 

When the human bones in question reached the Museo Nacional, 
where they were cleaned and reconstructed, "it was possible to 
establish the fact that they were fossil bones enveloped by the Pam- 
pean loess, in parts strongly hardened by calcareous concretions or 
tosca, which is so characteristic of the Pampean formation." 

When subsequently Professor Ameghino, with his brother Carlos, 
visited the place where the remains were found, he saw that " the 
fossae, from which the skeletons were extracted, were excavated in 
Unmoved (in situ) terrane, traversed by lines of tosca absolutely iden- 
tical with that which envelops and also fills many of the human 
bones. From the earth that was dug out I still gathered some frag- 
ments of the skeletons, various bones split longitudinally, and an 
instrument made from a fragment of long bone intended for retouch- 
ing stone flakes. 

"The whole surface of the ground was sown over with worked 
stones, some representing real instruments, others rejects and re- 
siduum. It is the industry of the split stone (piedra liendida). 

"I gathered also many fragments of scoriae and some of baked 
earth. 

' ' Finally, over the whole locality there were numerous fossil bones, 
especially from young animals. . . . 

i Ameghino, F., Geologia, paleogeografia, paleontologia , antropologia de la Republica Argentina. 
Estudio publicado en el Numero Extraordinario de La Nacion, Buenos Aires, May 25, 1910; separate, 
pp. 1-25. 

2 Ameghino, Florentino, Descubrimiento de dos esqueletos humanos fdsiles en el pampeano inferior del 
Moro; special separate, Congreso Cientifico International Americano, Buenos Aires, 10 & 25 de Julio, 1910, 
pp. 1-6. 

21535°— Bull. 52—12 18 



274 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

[Fifteen genera and species are enumerated.] 

"We collected also incomplete fossil human remains of various 
individuals. [ J ] . . . 

"As to the skeletal remains, they represent a hitherto unknown 
race, with characteristics so profoundly distinct and peculiar that I 
consider it a true species, which I designate by the name of Homo 
sinemento. 

"They were very small people, almost pigmies, whose approxi- 
mate height I calculate at about 1.40 cm. 

"All the bones of the skeleton indicate not only a race of very 
small stature but also slender people, not very robust, in consequence 
of which the muscular insertions on the bones are little marked. 
Some of the bones, as the femur, calcaneus, and astragalus, present 
very peculiar features, but their examination would require too much 
time. I shall occupy myself solely with the skulls. 

" These, in agreement with the stature, are very small. . . . Both 
are clearly dolichocephalic. There is nothing extraordinary as to 
their general form. The mastoids are small and the muscular inser- 
tions in general but little developed. There is no torus occipitalis 
and the inion shows scarcely any prominence. 

"The vault is rather low and the front is regularly convex and 
without a supraorbital arch. There are no supraorbital ridges, but 
there exists a well-marked transverse depression extending from one 
to the other of the orbital apophyses of the frontal. 

"The frontal is short and broad, and the coronal suture is nearly 
transversal, i. e., but little inclined forward and but little arched 
backward. 

"The glabella in its inferior part does not present an inversion 
backward, so that the nasion was not located in a depression; in this 
the spec*imej.is agree with the Homo pampseus and the Diprothomo. 

"The orbits are deep, and to judge by the more complete skull 
they were of greater height than breadth, a primitive character 
which we already know in the Homo pampseus. 

"The rostrum is quite prognathic, but this prognathism is due 
almost exclusively to the maxilla, which advances much forward. 

"The most noteworthy peculiarities of these skulls are those which 
relate to the dental apparatus and the conformation of the mandible. 

"The teeth are small in proportion to the size of the skull, but well- 
formed and worn horizontally all to the same level. The canines 
are more or less of the same size as the incisors and premolars, and 
their crowns do not reach higher than those of the contiguous teeth. 

f 1 It is puzzling that not a word is said of the numerous white quartzite flakes, rejects, and implements 
which strewed the same playa, some of these, as was seen later, being in close proximity to the grave. 
These stones were considered by F. Ameghino much more recent than those included in the above- 
mentioned industry of piedra Jiendida.] 



hrdli&ka] SKELETAL REMAINS OF EARLY MAN 275 

The true molars diminish in size gradually from the first to the last, 
the first being notably larger than the second. This difference is 
especially marked in the lower molars. The last lower molar does 
not exist and there are no signs that it has ever existed. . . . 

"The implantation of the superior incisors, canines, and premolars 
shows a small slant forward, producing slight dental and subnasal 
prognathism. In the inferior jaw the same teeth show reversely a 
slight inclination backward; that is to say, the mandible instead of 
being prognathic is orthognathic, or, more than that, ultra-orthog- 
nathic. 

"This characteristic is so much more surprising, as the jaw lacks 
absolutely the chin prominence, reproducing in this respect the con~ 
formation of the mandibles of Naulette, Spy, and Krapina, which 
are classified as belonging to the Homo primigenius. 

"In the Homo primigenius, however, the absence of the chin is 
accompanied by a strong prognathism of the anterior part of the 
alveolar region and also of the teeth which are inserted in this part, 
especially the incisors and the canines; moreover, these teeth are 
proportionally of larger size, and the canine is not only larger but its 
crown is also higher than that of the neighboring teeth. 

"This conformation in the Homo primigenius has been interpreted 
as very primitive, as an ape character inherited from the anthropoids. 

"It is known that I have combatted this view for many years. 
For me the Neanderthal or Homo primigenius type represents an 
extinct species, greatly specialized in the direction of bestialization. 
The pronounced dental prognathism which characterizes this type 
and the absence of chin are characteristics acquired secondarily. I 
maintain the opinion that the primitive humanoid (hominideo) type 
presented orthognathic denture without great canines and with the 
symphisis of the lower jaw vertical or nearly vertical. 

"The discovery of this new fossil type overthrows in a definite 
manner the theory of the simian descendants of the Neanderthal 
type. If this theory were true, the absence of the chin should 
always be accompanied by a great dental prognathism. Here we have 
a case completely contrary to that. The absence of the chin is accom- 
plished by a denture implanted vertically 1 and by an orthognathism 
as perfect as that in the most elevated existing human races. The 
theory that the type of Neanderthal is the phylogenetic intermediary 
between man and the anthropomorphs is overturned by this sole 
fact. 

"The new type under consideration represents by these charac- 
teristics a form anterior to that of the Neanderthal man or of the 
Homo primigenius." 

1 Compare previous lines. — A. H, 



276 BUREAU OF AMEEICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

The new species differs from Homo primigenius also "by the absence 
of prognathism, [*] by the more human conformation of the denture, 
and by an absolutely different conformation of the anterior region 
of the skull. [ 2 ] It is therefore a new species of man, which I have 
designated by the name Homo sinemento. 

"With this, we have in the Pampean formation, without taking 
account of the Homo sapiens of the uppermost strata, four distinct 
species of Hominidse., namely the Diprothomo platensis, the Homo 
pampseus, the Homo caputinclinatus and the Homo sinemento. These 
four species show among themselves differences much greater than 
those which we observe among the actual human races that are 
farthest apart. This not merely proves specific differences but also 
brings new evidence for the South American origin of man, because 
it is here where he acquired his greatest diversification and where he 
was represented by the greatest number of species." 

A brief note only on the Arroyo de Moro specimens is found in the 
recent paper on the Argentine fossil man, by Mochi. 3 He did not 
have time to study the remains relating to H. sinemento, but what he 
saw made him doubt the validity of the new species. 

OBSERVATIONS BY THE WRITER 

In June, 1910, the locality of the find was visited by the party 
consisting of Srs. F. and C. Ameghino, Mr. Willis, the gardener 
Parodi, the sailor from the chata, and the writer. 

The place was found to be in the inland terminal part of a long, 
irregularly outlined, denuded flat or playa,* lying within the belt of 
barren, moving sand dunes, near the small lake Malacara, far from 
any human settlement. One whole day and parts of two others were 
spent in the examination of the spot and the vicinity. The following 
is a transcription of the principal notes made there by the writer. 

The "skeleton playa" 5 is a somewhat broadened end portion of a 
long denuded depression, which connects with a barren flat that 
reaches down to the beach. It is situated in the midst of the sand 
dunes, slightly nearer the open land than the sea. 

The surface of the playa is grayish and blackish, with irregular 
remnants of a former level, 1 to 2\ feet (about 30 to 75 cm.) high. 
Below the discolored surface the earth is yellowish loess. Here and 
there within the loess are seen streaks of tosca. 

The irregular earth banks, when cut, show color and composition 
which appear to be similar to those of present surface of the playa; 
but in one of the elevations, about 2\ feet high, not far from the spot 

1 Compare previous lines. — A. H. 

2 This probably refers to its narrowness antero-inferiorly.— A. H. 

3 Mochi, A., Appunti sulla paleoantropologia argentina; in Arch, per VAntr. e la Etn., XL, Firenze, 
1910, p. 253-254. 

* See p. 112. 

6 For convenience the depression in which the find was made will be referred to under this term. 



hedliCka] SKELETAL, REMAINS OP EARLY MAN 2*77 

where the human, bones were found, the earth for about 8 inches 
from the top was blackish, evidently a remnant of a former vegetal 
surface. 

On closer inspection there were still found scattered over the sur- 
face of the terminal part of the playa and even close to the spot where 
the human skeletons were discovered, black as well as white chipped 
stones. As previously mentioned, the Ameghinos collected during 
their former visit many examples of the black variety. 1 Pieces of a 
quartzite grinding-stone and a few anvil-stones were also found by 
the writer on the "skeleton playa," and chipped stones of both the 
"black" and the "white" variety were numerous over some of the 
black playas in the neighborhood. 

In a portion of the "skeleton playa" were seen in several localities 
protruding bones of the glyptodon and other fossil species; all these 
lay clearly in the undisturbed deposits. 

A narrow part of the playa, connecting the inland portion of the 
flat with that extending toward the sea, where remnants of human 
bones were previously found on the surface by the Ameghinos, was 
examined. It differed in no way from the rest of the playa and was 
not more deeply denuded. It yielded some stone chips but no other 
specimens. 

Careful attention was given to the site that contained the principal 
human remains. The cavity from which the two "fossil" skeletons 
came was found to be filled with loess and sand blown in since the 
bones were removed. As to its original contents, the gardener as 
well as the sailor and his son said that it held the remains of two 
bodies. These lay with the heads at the opposite sides of the hole, 
the feet nearly touching. Both were in a contracted, somewhat crouch- 
ing position, which the two men later demonstrated most vividly 
(pi. 29). A narrow line of tosca, not very hard, ran through the soil 
that covered one of the skeletons, in a direction transverse to its axis; 
the earth itself was not hard. Some of the bones were fragmentary 
or in poor condition and some became broken at or after the excava- 
tion. With one of the skeletons was found a quantity of red and 
some white mineral pigment, in the form of small concretions. 
There were no animal bones with those from the human subjects, nor 
in close vicinity. 

The second day of the stay of the party at the chata, the force that 
made the first excavation was engaged to help clear out the cavity 
they had previously made, and to extend the digging in several 
directions.. This work, in which the writer took part, resulted in 
gaining some interesting information, which was recorded on the spot 
as follows. 

1 For meaning of the term" black" and "white" and further details, see the archeologic sections of this 
report. 



278 BUREAU OP AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

The skeleton cavity exists in an irregular elevation upward of 3 
yards in diameter and rising to about 18 inches above the surrounding 
surface. This elevation, due in a slight degree to the earth thrown 
out at the former digging, is one of the remnants of the earlier plain. 

The cavity is plainly a double or joint grave. There seems to be 
some possibility of judging of the depth of this beneath the old 
surface. The blackish earth, which, as previously mentioned, was 
found to form the top of an elevation a few steps from the skeleton 
cavity, can be interpreted only as a remnant of the former vegetal 
earth of the plain. Extending toward the skeleton cavity the horizon 
of the old surface indicated by this black earth, and remembering that 
the uppermost part of the skull of one of the skeletons was somewhat 
above the surface of the low elevation in the floor of the playa which 
contained the grave, it is seen that the original vertical distance 
between the top of the head of one of the buried bodies and the old 
surface of the ground was only about 1 J or at most 2 feet. It appears 
therefore that the interment might easily have been a fairly modern 
burial. 

Ameghino says the Indians of these regions did not bury in graves 
but made stone piles and that they had nothing to dig with. But 
the sailor has now parts of two Indian skeletons dug out from graves, 
with the earth still in and about the bones. Nothing at all was seen 
or learned of cairns or stone piles in the region; in fact there are 
nowhere any stones except the tosca and the pebbles near the beach. 
Burials in the ground were found previously along the coast (Moreno) 
and constitute the rule in the valley of the Rio Negro and in the sand 
dunes farther north, toward San Bias. Besides, a large artificially- 
edged piece of white quartzite, that would serve well for digging in 
even hard ground, was found farther north by the writer, 1 and there 
were available at all times bones, antlers, and sticks suitable for 
digging in the friable deposits of the surface. 

No trace of loose or broken tosca, as was said to have existed at one 
place in the earth covering the skeletons, can be found in the earth 
remaining from the former digging nor in the cavity itself. But its 
existence would be no standard of antiquity, for calcareous concre- 
tions form readily in the Argentine loess. 

In cleaning out the hole in which the human skeletons lay, it is 
noticed, after the removal of all that had been blown in, that on 
digging deeper than the first excavation, the earth is still soft, in 
one place to the depth of about 8 inches. This is possibly earth 
that had been removed in preparing the grave. It is not a part of 
the undisturbed deposit which constitutes the flat and which offers 
wherever exposed in the cavity, much greater resistance. 

1 One quite similar in size, shape, and material but of still better make, from near the left bank of the 
Rio Neuqen, a short distance from Necochea, came shortly afterward into the possession of Professor 
Ameghino through the gardener, Parodi. 



hbdliCka] SKELETAL REMAINS OF EARLY MAN 279 

The burial cavity is of an irregular oblong form, approaching 
somewhat an hourglass in shape. Its longest diameter from east to 
west measures a little more than 9 feet (3 in.) ; its greatest breadth in 
its more western part is just 3- feet (1 m.), while the greatest breadth 
of the more eastern enlargement is slightly more than 2 feet (65 cm.). 
The greatest depth of the larger part of the fossa is 25J inches (64 cm.), 
while that of the smaller portion is only 14 inches (36 cm.). The 
sides are slightly sloping, the cavity growing smaller toward the 
bottom. The greatest depth of the depression below the former 
surface of the soil, estimated- on the before-explained basis, was not 
far from 4 feet (1.25 m., more or less), a very common depth for an 
ordinary burial; it could, in fact, hardly be less with bodies interred 
in the contracted position. 

In the cavity and its immediate vicinity were found numerous little 
stones, some of which yielding red coloring matter were shown later to 
be impure ocher, while a few others were a white mineral pigment. 
According to the gardener and the sailor's boy, these lay with one of 
the skeletons ; if so, they can represent only "paint" stones that were 
buried with one of the bodies. 

These few crude pigment stones, to which no attention was paid 
when the skeletal parts were removed, are objects of paramount 
importance in considering the problem, of antiquity of the remains. 
They afford strong evidence of the fact that these were burials, and are 
also a proof of the use of such pigments, whether for adornment or 
other purposes, and of a belief in a future existence, in which the 
paints would be of use as in the present life. All this signifies a cer- 
tain grade of culture entirely incompatible with "the first homo, 
not to say even a frothomo" of Ameghino; moreover, it is in harmony 
with a widespread practice among the Indians, though more usually 
paint is buried with the man than with the woman. 

Besides the pigment stones there are found on or in the earth 
formerly thrown out from the grave a tooth and the piece of a jaw 
containing several teeth, which are taken by Professor Ameghino; 
also a middle cuneiform, secured for the United States National 
Museum. All these pieces, especially the teeth, resemble in a remark- 
able degree fairly recent bones, and the specimen brought by the 
writer is as rich in animal matter as any Indian bone from the more 
modern, even post-Columbian burials. 

The presence of undoubted Pleistocene, or possibly even older 
fossils in the floor of the "skeleton play a," at about the same level 
as the human bones, can afford no criterion whatever for determining 
the antiquity of the latter for, as repeatedly pointed out in other parts 
of this paper, a grave may penetrate any unconsolidated strata, 
whatsoever their geologic antiquity or paleontologic contents. It 
may even happen that fossil bones dug out in making the grave 



280 BUREAU OP AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

would be thrown in again with the rest of the earth, on or above the 
body. These facts would seem to be self-evident, yet they apparently 
received no consideration in this instance. 

Examination of the Skeletal Remains 

The examination of the skeletal parts resulted as follows: 

Malacara, or Moro, skeleton No. 1. — The remains representing this 
skeleton consist of a skull and a number of more or less eroded and 
defective bones. The skull is that of a middle-aged female, and the 
bones are probably from the same individual. 

The skull (pis. 30-32) is not deformed. Cemented earth (not tosca) 
adheres to the surface along the sagittal and along parts of the lamb- 
doid suture, forming a lump 0.3 mm. to about 3 mm. in thickness, on 
upper part of anterior half of right parietal. Ventrally, there are 
small scattered remnants of similar hardened loess-like earth. 

The walls of the skull are rather thin and of nearly ordinary weight, 
though probably somewhat lacking in animal matter. 

The left parietal presents slightly posterior to the coronal and along 
the anterior third of the sagittal suture, a noticeable bulging, approxi- 
mately 3.5 mm. long by 2 mm. broad, with a small circular perfora- 
tion in its anterior portion. This swelling corresponds to two 
depressions in the ventral surface of the parietal, produced appar- 
ently by moderate-sized tumors or abnormal growths of some nature. 
Two somewhat similar depressions are seen more posteriorly, one on 
each side, but these do not affect the outer wall. 

The frontal bone presents a slender and long nasal process, the 
nasion lying 11.5 mm. below the line connecting the highest parts of 
the orbital borders. The minimum breadth of the process (i. e., 
interorbital distance) is 2.05 cm. 

The nasion depression is shallow, the glabella of only moderate 
prominence. The supraorbital ridges are somewhat above the 
medium for a female, without reaching the average of males, and 
extend over the median half of the supraorbital space on each side. 
A shallow depression, such as frequently seen in modern Indian crania, 
extends from side to side above the supraorbital ridges. Over the 
outer part of the orbits the surface of the frontal slopes backward in 
the usual way. There is no approach to a supraorbital arch. 

The forehead is well built; shows no separate frontal eminences, only 
one large median convexity. There is no frontal or sagittal crest. 

The parietal eminences are large but dull. Outline of norma supe- 
rior is ovoid, that of norma posterior pentagonal, with low summit. 

The temporal crests are not pronounced; their nearest approach 
to the sagittal suture is to within 4.9 cm. on the right and 4.5 cm. 
on the left side. 



BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 



BULLETIN 52 PLATE 30 




MALACARA (OR MORO) SKULL NO. 1 



BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 



BULLETIN 52 PLATE 31 




MALACARA (OR MORO) SKULL NO. 1 



BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 



BULLETIN 52 PLATE 32 




MALACARA (OR MORO) SKULL NO. 1 



hedliCka] SKELETAL REMAINS OF EAELY MAN" 281 

The mastoids are somewhat above medium feminine in size; the 
supramastoidal crests are but slightly developed. 

The occiput is moderately protruding. Postero-inferiorly a portion 
of the bone is depressed, posthumously. Dorsally the surface is 
rather smooth, though a fairly marked transverse ridge exists under 
the insertions of the trapezii. 

The sutures, particularly the lambdoid, show submedium serration, 
as general among Indians; they are all patent or nearly so exter- 
nally, but ventrally the coronal sagittal and lambdoid are obliterated. 
There are no Wormian bones. 

The basal parts show feminine development, otherwise no special 
features. The occipital condyles are small. 

The facial structures are defective. The orbital borders are sharp. 
The nasal and orbital region indicates a feminine skull. 

On the whole the examination shows plainly an average, moderate- 
sized Indian cranium, not one feature of which points to anything 
more primitive. The entire specimen shows nothing whatever 
"bestial" or that could not be found in a modern female Indian skull, 
particularly in that of a woman of small stature. 

Measurements : 

Vault: cm. 

Diameter: ant. -post, max., 17.4 cm. ; lat. max 13. 2 

Cephalic index 75. 9 

Basion-bregma height, approximately 12. 6 

Height between line connecting auditory canals and bregma 11. 6 

Diameter frontal: min., 8.4 cm. ; max 10. 5 

Face: 

Diameter bizygomatic maximum 12. 7 

Circumference, maximum (above supraorbital ridges) 48. 

Nasion-opisthion arc 35. 8 

Nasion-bregma, 11.7 cm.; Bregma-lambda, 12.1 cm.; Lambda-opisthion . . . 12.0 

Transverse arc, approximately 28. 

Maximum length of right temporal 8. 6 

Foramen mag., max. length, 3.1 cm. ; max. breadth, approx 3. 

Thickness of left parietal above and along the squamous suture mm. .3 to 5 

Thickness of frontal bone at points corresponding to eminences mm . . 5 

The module (mean diameter) is 14.4 cm., and the capacity of the 
skull may be estimated at or near 1,200 cc. 

As every anthropologist who has occupied himself with American 
skeletal material will recognize, the above measurements are just 
about such as could be expected in a subdolichocephalic Indian 
female of small stature. The data relating to the female California 
skulls published by the writer in 1906 1 may be given for comparison. 

The two sets. of measurements are so similar that further comments 
on the Indian nature of the skull would be superfluous. 

i Contribution to the Physical Anthropology of California; in University of California Publications, rv, 
No. 2, Berkeley, 1906, p. 51etseq. 



282 



BUREAU OP AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 



[bdll. 52 



Comparison of the measurements of the Malacara or Mow skull No. 1, and of 14 female 

California Indian crania 



Measurement 



Length. 
Breadth 
Height. 
Module. 



Malacara 
skull 
No. 1 



cm. 
17.4 
13.2 
12.6 
14.4 



Average 

of the 

California 

skulls 



cm. 
17.24 
13.37 
12.75 
14.41 



Measurement 



Circumference 

Sagittal arc 

Thickness of parietal 
Breadth of face 



Malacara 
skull 
No. 1 



cm. 

48.0 

35.8 

.5 

12.7 



Average 
of the 

California 
skulls 



cm. 

48.10 

34.42 

.54 

12.88 



Oilier parts of the skeleton. — The bones are rather frail, short, femi- 
nine. All are eroded and defective- No exact measurements of 
lengths are possible. 

A remnant of the right humerus shows decidedly moderate pro- 
portions. The breadth and thickness of the shaft at the middle were 
about 1.9 cm. by 1.4 cm. The shape of the shaft closely approxi- 
mates type 4 (prismatic with anterior border broadened into a fourth 
surface). A slight vertical ridge exists in the situation of the supra- 
condyloid process. The specimen presents no unusual characteristics 
as to form. 

The remnants of the radii and ulnae present no features worthy of 
special mention. 

The femora were between 39 cm. and 40 cm. long (estimated); 
they were slightly longer than modern female Guayaquil femora in 
the Museo Nacional collection and correspond to a stature of between 
1.50 m. and 1.55 m. They present no special features as regards 
form except perhaps a greater than average stoutness of the external 
border of the subtrochanteric flattening. On the right side this 
border forms a surface 11 mm. broad. Each of the bones has a 
medium-size third trochanter. The whole shaft presents a moderate 
physiologic curvature backward and also a slight curve outward. 
The torsion is not unusual. 

Measurements of the femora: 

Diameter antero-posterior at middle: Right, about 2. 3 em. ; left 2.2 

Diameter lateral maximum: Right, about 2. 2 cm. ; left 2. 3 

Pilasteric index: Right, 104- 6 cm. ; left 95.7 

Diameter max., at subtrochanteric flattening: Right, 3. cm.; left 3. 2 

Diameter min., at subtrochanteric flattening: Right, 2. cm. ; left 2. 5 

Index of platymery: Right, 66. 7 cm. ; left 78. 1 

All these proportions are entirely compatible witl the assumption 
that the subject was an Indian. 

What remains of the tibiae shows that the shaft was prismatic with 
a slight concavity of the external surface and also a slight tendency 
toward the formation, by a vertical intermuscular ridge, of a double 
posterior surface. Both of these features approximate the bones to 



hedliCka] SKELETAL REMAINS OF EARLY MAN 283 

the Indian. At the middle, the anteroposterior diameter measures, 
on the right, approximately 2.6 cm., lateral 1.85 cm.; on the left, the 
antero-posterior 2.5 cm., the lateral 1.75 cm., giving the ordinary 
indices of 71.2 and 70. 

The pieces of the fibulae indicate weak bones; they show no special 
features. A portion of a clavicle is of normal shape but almost child- 
like in size. The astragalus is small and of ordinary form. On com- 
parison with other astragali no significant difference can be perceived. 

The calcaneus presents a separation by a groove 5 mm. broad of 
the anterior and middle facets for the astragalus. The sustentacu- 
lum tali protrudes considerably. The cuboid facets are as usual 
concave from above downward and moderately convex from side to 
side. There are no primitive features. 

Measurements of the calcaneus: 

Maximum length: Right, 7.3 cm.; left, 7.1 cm. Minimum height 
of body: Right, 3.4 cm.; left, 3.5 cm. Breadth of body (5 mm. 
back of the most posterior part of the large astragalus facet) : Right, 
2.4 cm.; left, 2.4 cm. 

All of these features agree well with the Indian provenience of the 
specimens. 

There are ten vertebras, probably nine dorsal and one lumbar. 
The bones are still in their natural position, cemented by sandy 
calcareous loess, consolidated on the surface but loose inside. The 
surface of this part of the skeleton has been treated with a solution of 
gomma laca Manca to prevent efflorescence; this hardens the bone 
(and it may be, to some extent, the loess also) without causing dis- 
coloration. 

The pelvis, so far as preserved, shows ordinary features; it is of 
moderate size and badly damaged. A piece of the shaft of an ulna 
adheres to the right ilium, being cemented to it by the hard loess 
(which Ameghino includes under tosca), and a portion of the head of 
the femur is cemented to one of the acetabula. 

A portion of the upper part of the sacrum is present, but unfortu- 
nately the specimen is so defective that it is not possible to take 
measurements. What remains of the bone shows no peculiar features. 

Another piece consists of a cluster of five right ribs from near the 
middle of the thorax, cemented together like the vertebras by hard- 
ened loess. The bones are of moderate size and anatomically present 
no special features. 

In addition to the specimens which have just been mentioned, there 
are in the same lot some hardened slivers of bone the origin of which 
could not be determined. These may not be parts of the human 
skeleton. 



284 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

The sum of the results of the study of the bones under consideration 
is that they present very ordinary human characteristics and that 
all their distinguishing features agree with those of the bones of the 
modern Indian. They show, as do the bones of any given skeleton, 
a few individual peculiarities, but these are without importance. 

Malacara, or Moro, specimen No. 2. (pis. 33, 34). — This is the 
specimen on which the species Homo sinemento in the main is founded. 

It is a small female adult skull, probably very slightly deformed in 
the Aymara fashion. It has been repaired from pieces and partially 
restored. This cranium is apparently somewhat "fossilized," espe- 
cially the teeth, winch have a brownish-pinkish glance. 

The forehead shows above the faintly marked frontal eminences 
two slight lateral nattenings, which are probably artificial. There is 
also a shallow broad depression under each parietal eminence, such as 
might have resulted from the application without much force of a 
band about the head. 

The glabella is moderately developed. There are traces only of 
supraorbital ridges and but a faint depression above them. The 
forehead is well-arched though not high, and there are slight indica- 
tions of frontal eminences. A moderate sagittal elevation is noticed 
from the bregma to the summit. 

The parietal eminences are well-marked; the outline of the norma 
superior is intermediary between ovoid and pentagonal, the outline of 
the norma posterior pentagonal. A slight asymmetry exists in the 
posterior part of the parietal region, due possibly to imperfect 
mending. 

The occiput is moderately convex and rather smooth. The 
mastoids are of medium feminine size. 

The walls of the skull are rather thin, the left parietal measuring, 
above and along the squamous suture, 3.5 mm. to 5 mm. 

On the whole, the form of the vault can not be regarded as entirely 
natural, though nearly so. 

The face was made too high in the reconstruction. It* shows 
a shallow nasion depression, ordinary form of nasal articulation and 
ordinary nasal process, with quite sharp orbital borders. The nasal 
aperture was rather narrow, being about 1.8 cm. in greatest breadth. 
Its inferior border is not dull and there are no subnasal fossae. The 
nasal spine is damaged. 

The upper alveolar process is somewhat prognathic (it appears 
more so owing to defective condition of the nasal structures) and not 
high (approximately 1.7 cm.). The palate presents no unusual fea- 
tures. The suborbital (canine) fossae are fairly hollowed out. The 
molars are submedium in size, rather prominent anteriorly. 

The lower jaw presents almost (but not absolutely) vertical sym- 
physis; there is, as can well be seen in the illustration (pi. 33), a 
distinct though very moderate median chin prominence. 



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hrdliCka] 



SKELETAL REMATNS OF EARLY MAN 



285 



This feature, which has been made much of, is in this case not a 
theroid or Neanderthaloid character, due to a strong preponderance 
of the dental portion of the bone over the basal part, but an infantile 
form, a lack of normal development restricted to that spot. It is 
on par with other localized infantile characteristics encountered 
now and then in the skull or other bones, particularly in those of 
females, though perhaps less frequently than some other such fea- 
tures. It occurs, however, now and then in the Indians and even in 
whites (see fig. 49) . 

The lower border of the chin is angular, approximating square. 
Ventrally the bones show a fairly strong submalar (or supra-mylo- 
hyoid) reenforcement. 




Fig. 49. Lower jaw of modern man showing only a slight chin prominence; unidentified, but either 
white or Indian. (U. S. Nat. Mus. No. 227323.) 

The teeth are feminine in size and moderately worn. The right 
lower third molar has never appeared; left (?) There is no unusual 
feature in the relative size of the molars. The canines are incon- 
spicuous, no diastema. 

Measurements : 

Vault: cm. 

Diameter: Ant.-post. max., 16.8 em. ; lat. max 12. S 

Cephalic index 78.2 

Height auditory canals line to bregma, approximately 11.7 

Height basion-bregma (estimated) 12. 7 

Circumference (above supraorbital ridges) 46. 2 



286 BUREAU OF AMEEICAlSr ETHNOLOGY Ibull. 52 

Vault — Continued. cm. 

Nasion-opisthion arc, about 33 cm. ; transverse arc 27. 5 

Diameter frontal: Min., 8.3 cm. ; max 10. 7 

Face: 

Height: Total, chin point to nasion, about 10.5 cm. ; upper 6. 5 

Breadth (?) (moderate). 

Interorbital breadth, minimum 2. 2 

Lower jaw: 

Height: At symphysis, 2.9 cm.; between first and second molars 2. 5 

Vert, ramus: Breadth, min., 3.5 cm. ; height, about 4. 9 

Thickness of horizontal ramus, between first and second molars (at right 

angles to the vertical axis) 1.3 

The specimen, it is seen, is quite small. The cranial capacity, 
though the walls of the skull are rather thin, could not have been 
much more than 1,150 cc. and the front part of the forehead is very- 
narrow. However, these facts are striking only when the specimen 
is compared with the standards among whites, or among the Indians 
developed physically more highly, as the Patagonians. Let this 
skull with its mate be contrasted with crania of the same sex of the 
Bolivians (with whom the individual to whom it belonged may well 
have stood in blood relation) or with those of other dolichocephalic 
and small-statured American tribes, and the dimensions will seem 
quite ordinary; in fact they will be still, especially as regards the 
capacity, somewhat distant from the extremes of the normal varia- 
tion in these crania. Moreover, the minimum frontal diameter, 
though often naturally small in the Indian, is invariably further 
diminished through the Aymara. kind of deformation. 

As examples of similar smallness of skull from other parts of the 
continent, the before-mentioned California series may be again 
referred to. Out of 11 female skulls in which the capacity could 
be measured, it was in 8 less than 1,200 cc. and in 5 less than 1,110 cc. 
In many of the Tarahumare (Mexican) females the capacity falls 
below 1,100 cc, and a similar condition prevails among some of 
the old Pueblos. As to Bolivia, 7 adult female crania in the 
United States National Museum collection have a mean diameter 
frontal minimum of 8.3 (8-8.5) cm., and in the large collection of 
such skulls in the American Museum of Natural History, New York, 
there are many not only with narrow forehead but also with 
small internal capacity. Finally the most modern-looking skull the 
writer brought from the Rio Negro Valley (No. 264117, U. S. N. M.), 
which is slightly deformed in the same Aymara fashion, has the 
diameter frontal minimum at the closest approach of the temporal 
crests of only 7.7 cm. 

From Peru the writer recently brought a large number of crania, 
among which have been found thus far 21 adult female skulls, show- 



hbdliCka] SKELETAL REMAINS OP EARLY MAN 287 

ing no abnormality or disease, but with capacities ranging from 
1,050 cc. to 920 cc. 

Outside the features just discussed, the skull is, so far as can be 
seen in its present state of preservation, entirely Indian-like, and 
there is not even a remote possibility that it is ancient. 

Geologic Notes on the Laguna Malacara (Arroyo del Moro) Region 

By Bailey Willis 

The Malacara find. — At a point somewhat more than 30 miles 
north of Necochea, not far from a small lake known as Laguna Mala- 
cara, two skeletons were exhumed from a playa among the sand 
dunes. The geologic formations of the vicinity may be described as 
follows : 

The basal formation is dull-brown loess-loam or waterlaid deposit 
composed of eolian loess. It is quite compact, contains much sec' 1 
ondary limestone or tosca, which occurs in flat layers and in places 
has been uncovered by wind erosion so that it constitutes the floor 
of hollows among the sand dunes. In color, texture, firmness, and 
its tosca the formation is lithologically identical with that seen south 
of Mar del Plata; in both localities it is styled "Ensenadean" by 
Ameghino, who assigns it to a Tertiary age. 

Overlying the Ensenadean is a discontinuous deposit that takes 
on several forms. One facies may be described as a brown loess 
containing films of tosca in suncracks. It is grayish on fracture, 
earthy rather than sandy, and hard to cut -with a knife or to 
dig with a shovel. The fact that it contains specks of black sand 
serves in the opinion of Doctor Ameghino to identify it as Inter- 
Ensenadean. The writer interprets it as a playa deposit formed of 
dust from the Ensenadean which was blown on a moist surface, 
wetted by absorption, dried and cracked, and in which secondary 
lime was deposited from ground water. This process is entirely con- 
sistent with a Recent origin. 

Another facies of the Inter-Ensenadean is a fine compact brown 
sand, mingled with loess, which may easily be cut with a knife or 
dug with a shovel. Its surface lies from a few inches above to 3 feet 
or more below that .of the harder facies, and it appears to occur 
around masses of the other, occupying hollows eroded by the wind. 
The two are scarcely distinguishable in color, but the softer is easily 
recognized on digging. At the line of contact one may observe that 
the films of secondary limestone in the harder of the two do not extend 
into the softer and in the latter was observed no tosca deposit of any 
kind. A general examination of the ground showed that the harder 
facies of the two presents a very irregular surface, having a relief of 



288 BUREAU OF AMEEICAlsr ETHNOLOGY [bull, 52 

1 or 2 meters due to wind erosion/ and that the softer, as already 
stated, has been deposited in the hollows (see pi. 29). 

It was in the softer of these two deposits that the skeletons were 
found, and it was in similar formation in another part of the playa 
that part of a carapace of a Glyptodon munizi was observed by 
Hrdlicka and the writer. Neither the skeletons nor the remains 
of the glyptodon appear to have any relation to the formation as 
fossils indigenous to it. 

A formation which is possibly younger than the sandy softer 
facies of the Inter-Ensenadean is a layer of sandy black earth, 
which in some places is probably the soil of the pampa where the vege- 
tation has been destroyed by advancing sand dunes, and elsewhere is 
an eolian deposit blown out from the pampa and mingled with sand 
and broken shells. Ameghino assigned it to a Recent date. It con- 
stitutes the floor of smooth flat hollows among the sand dunes, to 
which the name "black playas" was applied. Quantities of chipped 
stones were scattered over these playas. 2 About a dozen large and 
small exposures of the formation in a range of 7 kilometers along 
the coast were examined, but no fossil bones of extinct animals were 
seen, although bones of ostriches and of modern domestic animals 
were not uncommon. 

Capping the black-soil layer are dunes composed of brown-to-gray 
sand, which are overgrown with grass and fixed. They form an inner 
zone of low mounds on the margin of the pampa and sink away 
inland on the plain. Where they are eroded and exposed in sections, 
their relation to the underlying black soil is plainly to be seen. 

The latest formation in the district is that of the great sand dunes 
which rise to*a height of 20 to 25 meters. These consist of marine 
sands, shells, and some loess, blown up by the southerly winds. 
They are in constant motion. Their distribution with reference to 
one another is determined by the interaction of the winds from the 
south or southeast, that build them up and move them, with the 
winds from the northwest that blow across them. The latter tend 
to maintain open passes across the broad zone of moving sand hills, 
and thus prevent the constructive winds from building up con- 
tinuous ridges. It was in one of these passes through the zone of 
sand dunes that the two skeletons were found together. 

The writer regards the moving sand, the older dunes, the black 
soil, and the brown sandy faces of the Inter-Ensenadean, all as 
Recent formations, on the ground that they are all related to the 
phenomena of the coast and owe their genesis to the erosive or con- 
structive activities of the winds. The harder facies of the Inter- 

i See Doctor Hrdlieka's account. 

2 Similar worked stones, chips, etc., " black " and " white," were found scattered over the flat in which 
were discovered the two skeletons. 



hedliCka] SKELETAL, REMAINS OF EARLY MAN 289 

Ensenadean may pertain to the Ensenadean and may be of 
Tertiary age. The skeletons were found in that facies of the Inter- 
Ensenadean which the writer regards as Recent. But the age of 
the formation has no bearing on the age of the skeletons, since it is 
evident from the shallowness of the hole and the attitude of the 
bodies, as illustrated in plate 29, that they were buried in the soft 
sand by human hands. 

General Conclusions regarding Homo sinemento 

By A. H. 

After what has been said in previous pages, no further extended 
consideration of the subject on the writer's part seems necessary. 
The antiquity of the finds and the identification of a new species of 
man fail wholly to be substantiated by either geologic or anthropologic 
evidence. On the contrary, the evidence all points to a relatively 
modern age of the interments and to the ordinary Indian derivation 
of the bones. 

HOMO PAMP^EUS 
History and Reports 

Homo pampxus is, according to its sponsor, Professor Ameghino, 
"the most ancient representative of the genus Homo (possibly even a 
species of Prothomo), of which we now possess the skull, and it pre- 
serves many of the characteristics of the Diprothomo. ' ' 1 

The species is based on an imperfect cranium, known as the skull 
of Miramar, or La Tigra, found accidentally about 1888 by A. Canesa, 
a nonscientific employee of the Museo de la Plata, near the arroyo 
La Tigra, not far from Mar del Sud, south of Miramar. 

Since the above date a number of other specimens have appeared, 
which are placed by Professor Ameghino in the same class. He 
enumerates them as follows : 

"I designate examples of skulls of Homo pampxus, which are 
actually known, in this order : 

"First example: The skull found by Canesa south of Miramar, 
preserved in the Museum of La Plata, which has served me as a type 
upon which to found the species. ... It is the skull of a male. 

"Second example: The incomplete cranium discovered by Dr. 
Rodolphe Faggioli at Necochea, with some other bones of the skeleton. 

"Third example: This is the most complete skull which I have 
brought from my journey to Necochea . . . there are also numbers 

i Ameghino, Florentino, Le Diprothomo platensis; in Anales delMuseo National de Buenos Aires, xix (ser. 
iii, t. xn), Buenos Aires, 1909, p. 151; also p. 156, footnote. 

21535°— Bull. 52—12 19 



290 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

of bones of the rest of .the skeleton, but they are in a very bad state of 
preservation. It is the skull of a female. 

"Fourth example: Pieces of another cranium, which accompanied 
the preceding and presents the same features." 

The principal characteristics of the crania of the Homo pampseus 
are outlined by Ameghino in footnote 3 on page 127 in his paper 
on the Diproihomo, where, speaking of the Necochea skulls, he says: 

"These three skulls are of the same age as that of Miramar on 
which I have founded the Homo pampseus. They all present the 
same characteristics, including the excessively sloping forehead, 
which is natural and not the result of an artificial deformation, as has 
been alleged; all have the rostrum much prolonged forward and 
the alveolar border and the denture orthognathic; all present a 
glabella without backward inversion below, so that there is no 
fronto-nasal depression; all present the last molar placed forward 
of the most posterior part of the anterior border of the orbits; all 
show the inferior border of the orbit placed considerably more forward 
than the superior one; all are very dolichocephalic, with excessively 
narrow forehead, great orbits, and other characteristics.' , 

In consequence, "Judging from the paleontologic standpoint, 
Homo pampseus is a species very different from Homo sapiens; it 
differs much more from the latter than the Homo primigenius. It is 
even possible that when better known the Homo pampseus will result 
to be a veritable Prothomo." 

The various specimens above named call for separate detailed 
consideration. 

The Miramar (La Tigra) Skeleton 

history and reports 

« The Miramar skull (pis. 35, 36) was first mentioned and pictured 
by Ameghino in 1898. 1 In 1900 the announcement was commented 
on by Sievers 2 and by Lehmann-Nitsehe. 3 The skull is mentioned 
again prominently by Ameghino in 1906, 4 and was described with 
the rest of the bones of the skeleton by Lehmann-Mtsche in 1907. 5 
Finally the cranium was noted extensively by Ameghino in 1909. 

Strangely enough, with all the prominence and attention the speci- 
men has been given, almost nothing of importance is known about 
its discovery. Ameghino 6 gives merely the general locality, with the 

JAmeghino, F., Sinopsis geol<5gico-paleontol6gica; in Segundo Censo Nacional de la Republica Argentina, 
1895, Buenos Aires, 1898, 1, p. 148, fig. 15. 

2 Sievers, P., Review of Ameghino's Sinopsis, etc., in Petermanns Mittheilungen, xlvi, 1900, p. 72. 

3 Lehmann-Nitsehe, R., Review of Ameghino's Sinopsis, etc.; in Centr. fur Anthr., Ethn., und Urg., 
v, Jena, 1900, pp. 112-113. 

'Ameghino, P., Les formations sfidimentaires du cretace" superieur et du tertiaire de Patagonie; in Anal. 
Mus. Nac. Buenos A ires, xv (ser. iii, t. Vin), 1906, pp. 447-450. 

5 Lehmann-Nitsehe, R., Nouvelles recherches, etc. 

6 Ameghino F., Le Diprothomo platensis; in Anal. Mus. Nac. Buenos Aires, xix (ser. iii, t. xn), 1909, pp. 
156-190. 



BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 



BULLETIN 52 PLATE 35 




MIRAMAR (LA TIGRA) SKULL. (After Lehmann-Nitsche) 
Type of Homo pampseus (Ameghino). 



BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 



BULLETIN 52 PLATE 36 




MIRAMAR (LA TIGRA) SKULL. (After Lehmann-Nitsche) 
Type of Homo pampxus (Ameghino). The separate portion of the upper jaw is missing. 



hrdliCka] SKELETAL REMAINS OF EARLY MAN 291 

name of the finder, and states that it conies from the Lower Pliocene. 
Lehmann-Nitsche, 1 after having become a member of the staff of the 
Museo de la Plata, found that the discoverer of the specimen was no 
longer employed by the institution, but obtained the following details 
from Preparator E. Beaufils: "Beaufils, charged with collecting Pam- 
pean fossils, discovered [in about 1888], among other things, in a 
place near the cliffs which face the sea, not far from the little village 
Mar del Sud, between the arroyos La Tigra and Seco, mentioned 
already in connection with the Chocori find and near the place 
where these human remains were discovered, the carapace of a Glyp- 
todon. . . . One month later, Andreas Canesa, charged also with 
collecting fossils for the museum, thought that at the same point, which 
was still plainly recognizable by the eminences of earth that covered 
it, he could still find more fossils. He excavated in the neighborhood 
and discovered a human skull." This is all that was learned from 
Beaufils in regard to the find; from Canesa himself there is no infor- 
mation whatever. 

About eight years after the find, in 1896, according to Lehmann- 
Nitsche, 2 Messrs. Moreno, Roth, Nordenskj old, and Lahitte visited 
the locality from which the skull came and found there some bones 
of a scelidotherium and other fossil animals. 3 On this occasion Roth 
identified the deposits from which the specimen was believed to have 
come as Quaternary, Superior Pampean. 

This wholly insufficient evidence regarding the most important 
data bearing on the antiquity of the specimen would seem to be 
alone more than sufficient to cause the discarding of the Miramar 
skull from serious consideration as a representative of early man in 
Argentina, or at least to relegate it to the uncertain. But the 
cranium shows fossilization as well as some peculiar morphologic 
features, and owing largely to these was given by Professor Ame- 
ghino the consequential position of the Homo pampseus, genetically the 
first representative of the human family. For Lehmann-Nitsche, 
who carefully studied every part of the skeleton but did not remain 
uninfluenced by the "fossility" of the skull, the bones are not so 
ancient nor so important as claimed by Ameghino, nevertheless they 
are accepted, in spite of the defective evidence, as belonging to the 
Superior Pampean deposits, believed to be of Quaternary age. 4 

1 Nouvelles recherches, etc., pp. 335-336. 

2 Ibid., p. 335; a reference is here given as to where this information was first published (in Globus, 
Braunschweig, 1891, No. 9, p. 135), but the place indicated is occupied by an article on Korsika. 

3 There are no details. 

< " Under no condition can the skull come from the Inferior Pampean and consequently it should not be 
attributed so great an antiquity; it is certain that the skull is fossil in the true sense of the word and that it is 
derived from the Superior Pampean, from which other human remains are already known." — Lehmann- 
Nitsche, Nouvelles recherches, p. 335, in the brief account of the visit to the locality with Moreno and 
others, mentioned above in the text. 



292 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

The peculiar morphologic features of the Miramar skull, as seen by 
Professor Ameghino and in part already outlined (p. 290), are specified 
more in detail as follows: 

Of all the specimens representing the Homo pampseus, the Miramar 
cranium "shows the ancestral characteristics most accentuated, 1 
having no supraorbital ridges and presenting a front more sloping 
than any hitherto observed on a human skull that was not artifi- 
cially deformed. In this respect it surpasses the Neanderthal skull, 
from which it differs by the absence of the gross supraorbital swell- 
ings; it seems to differ from the same also in its posterior portion, 
which is more developed vertically and less prolonged backward, 
but it is probable that this may be due to an occipital compression 
produced during infancy, although not intentional. 

"This skull, which is distinguished from those of the Homo primi- 
genius or Neanderthal by a glabella without prominence and the 
absence of the supraorbital ridges, and differs from that of Homo 
sapiens by a forehead more sloping than that in the Homunculides 
and in some of the living apes, can not belong to the same species as 
existing man; it represents an extinct species, which I named Homo 
pampseus." 

And in the paper on the Diprothomo, 2 we read (pp. 156-158): 
"The rostrum of the Miramar skull is prognathic, nearly as much so 
as in the Arctopitheci and only a little less than that shown by the 
reconstruction of the Diprothomo; . . . there is no subglabellar 
depression; . . . the inferior border of the orbits is placed consider- 
ably more forward than the superior; . . . there is a prolongation 
forward of the glabellar region, which assumes the form of a truncated 
cone, a conformation almost absolutely identical with that which I 
have described in the Diprothomo. . . . 

"The cranial vault is not less extraordinary. It is ultra-dolicho- 
cephalic with a cephalic index of approximately 60 and with nearly 
parallel parieties. . . . 

"A simian peculiarity of the skull of the Homo pampseus which 
merits serious attention is the great development of the zygomatic 
arches and their bulging outward in such a manner that their trans- 
verse diameter from the external border of one zygomatic arch to the 
other much surpasses the greatest transverse diameter of the skull. 
This is a conformation unknown in normal, that is to say, nonpatho- 
logic skulls of Homo sapiens, but it is frequent among the apes." 

(Page 164) "In proportion to the rostrum the orbits of the Homo 
pampseus are very large and, placed below the very small forehead, 
they give the face an aspect which is truly bestial, which is further 
augmented by the circumstance that laterally one can not see the 

!Les formations sedimentaires, etc., p. 449. 

2 The data relating to the Homo pa.mpse.us are given piecemeal on various pages of the Diprothomo memoir. 



hedliCka] SKELETAL REMAINS OF EARLY MAN 293 

slightest vestige of the vault of the skull, owing to its narrow and 
elongated form. . . . 

"The forehead of the Homo pampseus is so sloping that in this 
feature it surpasses numerous monkeys." 

The posterior part of the skull is elevated; "the conformation of 
the frontal [in all the Homo pampseus skulls] is natural, without any 
vestige of artificial deformation" (p. 170); the last molar teeth are 
placed forward of a vertical line drawn from the most posterior point 
on the orbital border (p. 172). As to the lower jaw, "the chin is very 
prominent;" but "this conformation, which is believed to be recent, 
is, on the contrary, excessively ancient and reaches probably to the 
very origin of the Hominiens" (p. 173). 

On the whole, the "characters of inferiority of the skull of the Homo 
pampseus are so apparent," according to Sefior Ameghino, "that they 
can not pass unperceived by any anatomist" (footnote, p. 172). 

On the other hand, Lehmann-Nitsche, who studied the Miramar 
skeleton in detail, 1 fails to find about it any very extraordinary 
features. The skull "presents no sign of inferiority" (p. 334-335); 
but its fossility is such that "the bone adheres to the tongue and 
has the same characteristic constitution as presented in general by 
the bones of vertebrates [fossil], which make the reputation of the 
Museo de la Plata" (p. 336). The view Ameghino takes of the speci- 
men, in attributing it to a particular species of man, the Homo pam- 
pseus, "is absurd" (p. 336). 

The skull (pis. 35, 36), which is probably masculine, shows, accord- 
ing to Lehmann-Nitsche, a posthumous and an artificial deformation, 
the latter consisting of a fronto-occipital flattening (pp. 337-338). 
It is extraordinarily narrow (p. 340), "supremely dolichocephalic" — 
cephalic index 68.59 (p. 341). 

The glenoid fossa presents features which correspond exactly with 
those observed by Martin in ancient skulls from Patagonia (pp. 
342-344). 

The palate is very low, the front teeth are small, the crowns of the 
third molars rather large (p. 346). The left upper third molar is 
probably congenitally absent (p. 350). 

"The reconstructed profile of the La Tigra skull shows a very 
strong prognathism," and "in the lower jaw we are equally surprised 
by the strong prominence of the chin" (p. 349). 

"The capacity of the skull, calculated by Welcker's method, is 
1,464 cc." (p. 349). 

As to the lower jaw, the ascending ramus is broad, but this Leh- 
mann-Nitsche considers " characteristic of Americans" (p. 351); "the 
features of the chin region, ventrally, belong to the common human 
type" (p. 356); the curve of the jaw approaches the more primitive 
U shape, and the bone is stout. 

1 Nouvelles recherches, etc., pp. 334-374. 



294 BUEEAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

As to the other bones of the Miramar skeleton, including the long 
bones, they are compared principally with those of Bavarians, hardly 
a satisfactory procedure; they present but little worthy of special 
notice. 

The length and other dimensions of the femur approximate 
closely the average of the Bavarian bone (pp. 262-268). Both 
femora are very platymeric. 

The tibiae are platycnemic, the fibulae relatively strong. 

The stature of the individual is calculated to have been approxi- 
mately 1.634 m. (p. 374). 

The skull of Miramar was also considered, in 1908, with some of 
the other finds reported by Ameghino, by Giuffrida-Ruggeri, 1 who 
expresses himself (p. 24) as follows: 

"Ameghino gives illustrations of these skulls, from which I per- 
ceive that the Quatenary one (Arrecifes), as well as the one from the 
Upper Pliocene (Fontezuelas), presents an entirely modern aspect; 
and so far as the skull from the Lower Pliocene (Miramar) is concerned, 
the specimen conveys a very distinct impression of being deformed. 
Ameghino was led himself to say that as to the appearance of the 
occiput, 'it is probable that that is due to an occipital compression 
produced during early infancy, although not intentional.' Unfor- 
tunately, however, for this ' nonintentional ' characterization, it hap- 
pens that, in my opinion, the forehead also is deformed, in the same 
manner as in pre-Columbian natives of America. It can not be 
accepted that the front slopes naturally as a result of a defective brain 
development, for the brain development in the posterior half of the 
specimen is even excessive, standing in marked contrast to the fore 
part. Such a feature would be opposed to all experience and would 
puzzle the observer, who would not comprehend why the brain 
pressed on the back part of the skull and not also on the frontal bone, 
arching it in such a manner that it would afford greater accommo- 
dation for the organ. If the brain failed to exert pressure on the 
frontal bone (and unintentional pressure exerted on the occiput 
would have forced the brain of the young man against the frontal 
bone), it was because there existed also over the forehead a band or 
some other appliance which pressed upon it. Under these condi- 
tions, however, it is to be feared that the period of the Lower Pliocene 
(to which the skull was attributed) becomes the age of the discovery 
of America." 

In 1909 and again in 1910 Sergi 2 utilized the Homo pampseus 
without critical consideration of the specimen, in his theory of poly- 
genism and in a new classification of man. 

1 In Globus, Bd. xciv, Braunschweig, 1908, pp. 21-26. 

2 Sergi, G., L' apologia del mio poligenismo; in Atti Soc. rom. antr., xv, fasc. 2, Roma, 1909, pp. 187-195; 
and Paleontologie sud-A.mencaine, in Scientia, vm, Bologna, 1910, xvi-4. 



hrdliCea] SKELETAL REMAINS OF EARLY MAN 295 

In 1910 the Miramar skull is casually referred to* by Schwalbe 1 
in his critical study of the Diprothomo. Speaking of the faulty figures 
of the Diprothomo, Schwalbe says: "On this occasion let it also be 
stated at once that Ameghino's Homo pampseus skull, pictured 
in the same work (fig. 24, p. 157 of Ameghino's memoir on the Dipro- 
thomo), is falsely posed for the norma verticalis." If the position is 
corrected, the inferior orbital border, which in the illustration is 
advanced considerably more forward than the upper, assumes the 
same position as in recent man. 

Finally, in the latter part of 1910, the Homo pampseus remains from 
Miramar and Necochea are considered by Mochi in his notes on the 
Argentine paleoanthropology. 2 

As to the Miramar skull, however, Mochi's observations are 
restricted. He recognizes that it is artificially deformed. Except 
for the deformation, it presents considerable resemblance to the skull 
of Fontezuelas. This is somewhat in accord with the opinion of 
Rivet, who inclines, in a brief note on the specimen, 3 to class it with 
those of Lagoa Santa. 

OBSERVATIONS BY THE "WRITER 

The results of the writer's examination and measurements of the 
Miramar skeleton differ considerably from those of Ameghino, and 
somewhat also from those of Lehmann-Nitsche, though with the latter 
there are many points of agreement. 4 

The skeleton is that of an adult male, of advanced middle age. 
The sexual identification of the skull can be safely based on the lower 
jaw, which can not be other than masculine; the remaining parts of 
the cranium show the sexual features less pronounced than ordinary. 
The long bones indicate a male of moderate stature and musculature. 

The poor development of the sexual characteristics of the vault, 
otherwise of little importance, is surely not a feature of any great 
primitiveness or one pointing toward antiquity. 

The surfaces of all the bones are discolored to yellowish-white (verv 
much as in the specimens fromChocori, p. 239), and in general very 
defective, being worn or scaled off. In a number of places on the skull 
and bones there are incrustations of loess cemented by lime, and a few 

1 Schwalbe, G.,Studienzur Morphologie der siidamerikanischen Prima tenformen; in Zeitschr.fiirMorph. 
und Anthr., Bd. xm, Heft 2, Stuttgart, 1910, pp. 242, 253. 

2 Mochi, A., Appunti sulla paleoantropologia argentina; in Arch, per VAntr. e la Etn., xl, Firenze, 1910, 
p. 253-254. 

8 Rivet, P., La race de Lagoa-Santa chez les populations pr^colombiennes de l'Equateur; in Bull, et 
Mtm. Soc. d' Anthr. Paris, 5™= s6r., ix, 1908, p. 209 et seq. 

* To insure greater independence of procedure and view in this case, as in that of every other object 
reported on in this paper, with the exception of the Diprothomo, the details published by Ameghino, 
Lehmann-Nitsche, and others, concerning these specimens, were not read until after the writer's results were 
on paper. 



296 



BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 



[bull. 52 



parts of the skull, including its ventral surface, show more or less 
infiltration with calcareous matter. The cavities of the long bones 
are filled with dark-yellowish loess, which crumbles quite as readily 
as would that from an ordinary well-settled deposit; at the ends, 
however, where there has been more exposure, the loess is hardened. 

The above description indicates approximately the extent of the 
visible "fossilization" of the skeleton. With exception of the parts 
that are incrusted or infiltrated with lime, the bones are not percep- 
tibly heavier than the average, and are not chalky, retaining probably 
considerable animal matter. 

To obtain a more precise view of the " f ossilization " of the specimen, 
a small fragment of bone from the vault of the skull, with other speci- 
mens from Homo pampseus and some modern but weathered and 
more or less fossil-appearing bones from the coast, 1 were subjected to 
a limited chemical analysis. The work was done by Mr. J. G. Fair- 
child, under Prof. F. W. Clarke, at the United States Geological 
Survey, and the report is given below. In a letter accompanying the 
report Professor Clarke says: 

"It is worth while to notice that the three specimens which purport 
to be fossil were not perceptibly lower in phosphoric acid than the 
others. They all give a strong odor of charring when burned, indi- 
cating the relative quantities of organic matter." 

Department or the Interior, 
United States Geological Survey, 

Division of Chemistry. 

Report of Analysis No. 2523. {Material received from Charles D. Walcottfor A. Hrdlicka: 
"Fossil" bones from Argentina) 



Specimens 


Effect of heat 


Loss 
on igni- 
tion. 


S1O2 


P2O5 


Indication of 
carbonates 


263759. Scelidotherium from near 


Slight odor 


of 


19.12% 


4.00% 


25.40% 


Effervescence strong. 


Laguna Malacara, north of Neco- 


charring. 












chea. 














Homo pampeeus (Miramar) skull 


Strong odor 
charring. 


of 


25.56% 


1.06% 


25. 92% 


Effervescence strong. 


263754. " Fossil skeleton" fromnear 


Marked odor 


of 


16.12% 


2.92% 


30. 48% 


Effervescence strong. 


the Laguna Malacara, north of 


charring. 












Necochea. 














''Fossil man" from near the beach of 


Strong odor 


of 


20. 67% 


1.89% 


25.44% 


Effervescence not so 


Necochea (remains of skeleton in 


charring. 










strong. 


U. S. N.M.). 














Modern animal bone, weathered, 


Marked odor 


of 


14.30% 


8.06% 


27. 61% 


Effervescence fairly 


from Necochea. 


charring. 










strong. 


Seal bone, weathered, from sands at 


Strong odor 


of 


18. 20% 


0.64% 


31.40% 


Effervescence strong. 


Punta Mogote, south of Mar del 


charring. 












Plata. 















1 Picked up on the beach or the sands and identified as belonging to recent species by Mr. J. W. Gidley, 
the United States National Museum paleontologist. 



hrdliCka] SKELETAL. REMAINS OF EARLY MAN 

Report of Analysis No. 2523 — Continued 



297 



Specimens 


Effect of heat 


Loss 
on igni- 
tion 


Si0 2 


P20 5 


Indication of 
carbonates 


Sea lion bone, weathered, fossil-like, 


Very strong odor 


17.40% 


7.42% 


29.61% 


Effervescence mild. 


from a flat near the beach Punta 


of charring. 










Mogote, south of Mar del Plata. 












Guanaco bone, from Miramar (ex- 


Slight odor of 


16.38% 


2.74% 


30. 10% 


Effervescence mild. 


tinct in that region). 


charring. 










Horse tooth, looking much fossilized, 


Strong odor of 


17.16% 


3.32% 


31.44% 


Effervescence mild. 


but recent, from beach of Laguna 


charring. 










de los Padres, west of Mar del 












Plata. 












Deer bone, modern, much weathered, 


Strong odor of 


21.84% 


1.32% 


31.51% 


Effervescence strong. 


from sand dunes at Punta Mogote, 


charring. 










south of Mar del Plata. 













Examined by J. G. Fairchild and reported January 9, 1911. 

F. W. Clarke, Chief Chemist. 

It is seen from the above data that the Miramar man gives evidence 
of the retention of at least as much animal matter as the weathered 
bones of the modern seal, horse, and deer, and of decidedly more than 
a relatively recent guanaco or the more ancient scelidotherium. Nor 
do the other tests indicate mineralization; but parts of the skull 
that are more covered or impregnated with lime would doubtless give 
somewhat different results. 

The retention of animal matter is the most important point brought 
out. The mineralization of a bone, human or otherwise, is a matter 
the importance of which, as pointed out in other parts of this report, 
is very often overestimated. The process is far more a question of 
environment than of time and can serve only under exceptional con- 
ditions as an index of antiquity. As mentioned before, the United 
States National Museum possesses parts of human skeletons fos- 
silized in almost every possible manner and degree, some of the 
specimens being entirely petrified and showing greater mineralization 
than do the bones of the mastodon and other long extinct animals, and 
yet it is well-determined that none of these remains are of even moder- 
ate geologic antiquity. This whole subject was treated more at 
length in the writer's report on the "Skeletal Remains Suggesting or 
Attributed to Early Man in North America." 1 Conditions favoring 
strongly the covering and infiltration of bones, especially with cal- 
careous matter, are present along a large portion of the Argentine 
coast, and apparently elsewhere in the country where there are loess 
deposits. This is seen in the constant presence of the formation 
within the loess of these regions of the tosca or calcareous concretions, 



1 Bulletin S3 of the Bureau of American Ethnology. 



298 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

which in many places assume the form of whole layers, and also in the 
effects observed on recent bones of animals as well as of man. 

The writer brought an astragalus of a cow picked up among the 
refuse in front of an occupied hut on the coast near Mar del Plata, 
which shows marks of cutting with a sharp knife. This bone 
undoubtedly came from a limb the flesh of which was eaten some 
years ago by the family occupying the dwelling, but already it pre- 
sents a metallic luster and a darkened surface as well as increased 
weight, being plainly on the road toward fossilization. 

From slightly farther south, near the Arroyo Corrientes, the writer 
brought a large part of the pelvis of a cow which had been partially 
buried and partially exposed to the air; the part that was buried is 
of a dark color and has a smooth, hard, shining surface decidedly 
fossil in appearance, while the rest of the bone is quite white. Other 
bones were picked up from the sands and play as, which had been 
exposed for a long time to the sun and to the wind blast; these 
are weathered, some hardened and some crumbling, dry, fossil-like. 
One and the same bone occasionally presents these different features 
in different parts, which evidently were subjected to unlike con- 
ditions. Several specimens of the teeth of the common horse were 
picked up on the broad, flat beach of the Laguna de los Padres, all 
belonging to the modern horse, hundreds of living specimens of which 
are feeding about the lake; these teeth are yellowish-brown in color, 
with blackish somewhat lustrous discoloration in places, and with a 
surface resembling that of petrified wood. 

Finally, the writer brought from the valley of the Rio Negro, from 
the mud-soil of a shallow depression in the alluvial surface of the 
valley, which is occasionally filled with water, the remains of 10 
Indian skeletons, including several complete skulls, all parts of which, 
except those for a time exposed to the air where they lay and in 
consequence bleached, are brownish-black, old bronze-like, shiny, 
somewhat heavier than normal, and in every way "fossil" in 
appearance. The teeth even more than the bones look fossil-like 
and the changes undergone by them are markedly different in the 
several specimens. The "fossil" as well as the other Patagonian 
skulls of Moreno belong to this same category. 

The foregoing does not imply that every bone of man or animal 
on the coast of Argentina will become fossil-like or mineralized in a 
short time; but such cases are relatively common, and the mere 
fossilization of a bone can not be taken by itself in any instance, 
without decisive proofs of geologic and morphologic nature, as a 
criterion of the antiquity of the specimen. This applies particularly 
to cases in which the bone is found covered or incrusted with cal- 
careous matter or concretions, for lime salts are more easily soluble 
than many other minerals; they are carried not only by the surface, 
but especially by the underground waters, the latter often rising 



hrdliCka] SKELETAL REMAINS OP EARLY MAN 299 

sufficiently high, as shown by the tosca formation, to reach the bones 
of even a shallow burial. The deposition of lime takes place rapidly, 1 
and, as we know from numerous specimens from the California caves, 
the Cuba and Isle of Pines caves, and from the shell-mounds, it does 
not affect merely the surface, but infiltrates parts of the bones, 
giving them the appearance of great age. 

STcull. — The Miramar skull was restored from a number of pieces and 
partially reconstructed in mastic. The filling in the frontal comprises 
about one-fourth of the squama on the right side and extends from the 
supraorbital ridges to the coronal suture and beyond into the parietal. 
The restoration is near to nature, yet the forehead may have been a 
trace less sloping than it now appears. Some of the pieces from 
which the skull was reconstructed show signs of artificial beveling 
of the borders, evidently done by those who restored the specimen and 
because the pieces did not fit exactly. A slightly similar superficial 
beveling, besides other defects, is seen also over the mid-region of 
the frontal squama. 

The surface of the vault of the Miramar specimen is for the most 
part worn and peeled off (as in the Chocori skull). The same state- 
ment is especially applicable to the ridges of the frontal bone; that 
on the right appears as if partially cut off. In consequence of these 
defects the minimum frontal diameter can not be accurately deter- 
mined and the front appears narrower than it really was. 

The skull has been artificially deformed, showing mild frontal 
with moderate occipital compression; it bears also, perhaps partially 
corrected, a post-mortem deformation, the whole right side below 
the parietal eminence being somewhat pressed in, more so in front, 
less so over the posterior part of the parietal. This latter deforma- 
tion still exists to an extent sufficient to diminish the breadth of the 
skull by approximately 2 mm. to 4 mm. 

Of this double deformation of the skull, which was equally recog- 
nized by Lehmann-Nitsche but not by Ameghino, the alteration 
produced in life proves to be a very weighty indication against any 
great antiquity of the Miramar specimen. 

As described above, the life-deformation in the Miramar skull is 
mainly in evidence on the frontal bone and on the occiput. Not- 
withstanding this, careful inspection shows that it is not of the 
"flathead" type but represents a lighter grade of the Aymara 
variety of intentional deformation, produced not by pressure of a 
plank or pad on the forehead but by the application of a bandage 
about the head. 

In the "flathead" type of deformation, the skull in compensation 
invariably grows wider, and there is no such effect in this case; in 

1 "The rapidity with which caliche [Mexican term equivalent to tosca.— A. H.] may be formed under 
experimental conditions out-of-doors may be remarkable — 2 inches in two years." — Tolman, C F., in 
Carnegie Institution Publication No. 113, Washington, 1909; also reference in Science, June, 1910, p. 865. 



300 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

the Aymara type, on the other hand, it never widens and often 
becomes even narrower than would be natural in the normal adult 
stage, a condition which agrees with what is observed in the 
Miramar specimen. 

It may be adduced that in the Aymara form the impression of the 
compressing bandage can be plainly traced about the vault, and that 
there are marked secondary effects of the compression, particularly a 
coronal elevation and precoronal as well as postcoronal depression, 
besides a bulging, a protrusion, backward and upward, of the posterior 
portion of the parietal and the upper part of the occipital region. 
However, these effects are present in only a very moderate degree 
and are sometimes very nearly absent in cases of slight Aymara 
deformation, very much as in the skull of Miramar. Never- 
theless, even the Miramar specimen (pis. 35, 36) is not entirely 
devoid of such marks, for the lower half of the parietals presents a 
faint concavity from above downward, extending over a larger part 
of the bones antero-posteriorly than usual; there is also a slight post- 
coronal depression and there is the heightening of the norma posterior, 
which does not take place without a simultaneous widening of the 
same in the fronto-occipital or simple occipital types of deformation. 

Now, intentional deformation of the head, even among savages, is 
a ritual operation, denoting contact of peoples, an approach to a 
sedentary life of the family, and at least a moderate stage of native 
culture, all of which ill agrees with Professor Ameghino's "first repre- 
sentative of the human beings" — if not even "man's forerunner," the 
Homo pampseus. 

Furthermore, similarly deformed Indian skulls have been found 
before and since in Argentina. Burmeister mentions 1 two deformed 
crania from the Rio Negro, but gives no details as to the type. Moreno 
reports several 2 and states in addition, referring to the Valley of the 
Rio Negro, that he found more than 100 skulls deformed in this man- 
ner. And Verneau 3 mentions four crania of the Aymara type of 
deformation from Viedma, also in the Valley of the Rio Negro. 

Shortly after the arrival of Professor Ameghino, his brother, Mr. 
Willis, and the writer at the so-called chata, a stranded barge on the 
coast north of Necochea, the sailor occupying the boat, the man who 
discovered the principal representative of the Necochea Homo 
pampzeus, brought in a box filled with black sandy vegetal earth, 
containing human bones. On examination it was found that 
the remains were parts of two, in no way "fossilized," but badly 

1 Burmeister, O., Sur les cranes, les moeurs et l'industrie des anciens Indiens de la Plata; in Compte- 
rendu du Congres international d'anthropologieetd'archtologie prehistoriques, 1872, Bruxelles, 1873, pp. 342-351. 

2 Moreno, F. P., Sur deux cranes prehistoriques rapportes du Rio-Negro; in Bull. Soc. d'Anthr. Paris, 
3me ser., ra, 1880, pp. 490-497; also Description des cimetieres et paraderos prehistoriques de Patagonie; 
In Revue d'Anthropologie, 1*™ ser., in, Paris, 1874; Viaje k la Patagonia austral, emprendido bajo los auspi- 
cios del Gobierno nacional, 1. 1, 1876-77, Buenos Aires, 1879 (for review of this work, see last-mentioned 
Journal, 2™ sex., m, Paris, 1880, pp. 303-309.) 

a Verneau, P., Cranes prehistoriques de Patagonie; in L'Anthropologie, V, Paris, 1894, pp. 420-450. Also 
by same author, Les anciens Patagons, Monaco, 1903, pp. 126-129. 



BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 



BULLETIN 52 PLATE 37 




FOSSILIZED PATAGONIAN SKULL FROM VICINITY OF VIEDMA, ON 

RIO NEGRO 

This skull (No. 264129, U. S. Nat. Mus.), lateral and top views of which are here shown, is marked by 
a slight Aymara-like deformation. 



BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 



BULLETIN 52 PLATE 38 




SKULL OF HOMO PAMP/EUS (a) AND PATAGONIAN SKULL (&) 

Rear views, a, From Miramar (after Lehmann-Nitsctae); 6, No. 264129, IT. S. Nat. 
Mus., marked by slight Aymara-like deformation. 



BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 



BULLETIN 52 PLATE 39 















... 






■ 






WW 






\ 




[3r. 




Jn 


, , 


|vV 






i 


• '■ i^^ 


A 






■jnk^. v l a^fl 




itt^~ry '£2 




TWO PATAGONIAN SKULLS 

a, recent, and 6, fossilized, but of no great antiquity (though probably pre-Columbian), marked 
by Aymara-like deformation in minor degree. 



BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 



BULLETIN 52 PLATE 40 





PERUVIAN (a) AND PATAGONIAN (&) SKULLS 

Both skulls are in alveolo-condylian plane. 

a. Showing Aymara-like deformation in a slight degree. . 

6 Probably pre-Columbian, from near Viedma, showing Aymara-like deformation m a marked 
' degree. (From same series as specimen on pi. 37 and skull o on pi. 39.) 



BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 



BULLETIN 52 PLATE 41 




PATAGONIAN (a) AND AYMARA (6) SKULLS 



a, From Viedma; shows marked Ay mara-like deformation. (After Verneau.) 
6, From Tiahuanaco; shows slight and aberrant Aymara-like deformation. 



hrdliCka] SKELETAL REMAINS OP EARLY MAN 301 

broken and decomposed skulls. One of these, an adult male, showed 
a plain case of moderate Aymara deformation, which fact, as well as 
the very evident recent character of the skull, after being pointed out 
by the writer, was freely acknowledged by Professor Ameghino. 
The remains were found, according to £he sailor, in shallow graves 
somewhere north of the Laguna Malacara, which lies about a mile 
inland from the chata, but owing to an exaggerated notion of the 
money value of such objects the man would not reveal the exact loca- 
tion. He said, however, there were other similar burials. The frag- 
ments were, the writer understood, to be sent to the Museo Nacional, 
Buenos Aires, but a month later they had not been received. 

Meanwhile the writer proceeded down to the Rio Negro, and there 
succeeded, through the help of Srs. D. Gallindez, the acting governor, 
and F. R. Cuestas, the inspector of police, in obtaining from the dry 
mud of the Paso de la Laguna de Juncal, about 4 miles south of 
Viedma, parts of 11 nearly black (except bleached parts protruding 
from the ground) skeletons; and 10 of the skulls (the eleventh being 
a part, of that of a fetus) show more or less perceptible Aymara 
deformation. In only 1 case is the deformation of a greater degree 
than that in the specimen from Miramar (see pis. 35-41). Just 
before leaving the region the writer obtained a similarly deformed 
skull, but not stained or presenting any ancient characteristics or 
fossilization, from a superficial Indian burial-ground discovered 
accidentally in the southwestern limits of the town of Viedma itself 
(pi. 39). 

It is evident from the above summary that a center of population 
practicing Aymara-like deformation of the head, existed at no very 
distant time in the lower part of the Valley of the Rio Negro, in the 
district of Viedma. The exact period of this occupation remains to 
be determined. As seen before, Moreno found a skull with Aymara 
deformation 10 feet deep m the sands. The crania found by the writer, 
similar in appearance to some of the Rio Negro skulls collected by 
Sr. Moreno, which were seen in the La Plata Museum, were all super- 
ficial, and that from Viedma itself, is plainly recent. The surface 
alluvium of the Rio Negro, a river which not infrequently overflows 
the flats, is of no geologic antiquity. The brownish-black discolora- 
tion of the bones is probably due to an abundance, in at least some 
localities, of manganese and iron salts, and may be also due in part 
to results of decomposition of organic matter; it is not a sign of 
antiquity. As mentioned before (p. 298) a similar discoloration is 
seen in a partially buried cow's pelvis collected by this expedition, and 
in other recent bones. 

Both Necochea and Miramar are at no great distance from the 
Rio Negro center and the road offered no obstacles. 

Thus, the artificial deformation, which suggests a limited former 
Aymara influence on a part of the Argentine population, offers 



302 



BUREAU OP AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 



[bull. 52 



nothing in support of and much against any great antiquity of the 
Miramar specimen. Such deformation connects it, as do also its 
main morphologic features (see p. 300), with an imperfectly-known 
native group of the Argentine coast, some living remnants of which 
have apparently persisted at Viedma and north of Necochea to rela- 
tively modern if not to historic times. 

The original form of the Miramar skull, which is plainly determinable? 
was dolichocephalic. The principal measurements are: Diameter an- 
teroposterior maximum, 19.2 cm. and diameter lateral maximum, 
13.1 cm.; but the latter, as mentioned above, is surely somewhat 
diminished by the posthumous compression. The height of the 
vault, from the line connecting the auditory canals, to bregma, can 
not be accurately determined, but was slightly in excess of 12 cm. 1 
These measurements, either singly or collectively, are in no way 
extraordinary compared with those of some modern dolichocephalic 
Indian crania, especially with some that have suffered a similar kind 
and grade of deformation. And as will be seen from the table below 
they approximate quite closely to those presented by the brownish- 
black crania brought by the writer from near Viedma and showing 
(with one exception) the same kind of deformity. 

Fossil-like skulls from near Viedma 



Cat. No. (U.S.N.M.) 


Sex 


Deforma- 
tion 


Length, 
maximum 


Breadth, 
maximum 


Floor of 

auditory 

canals line- 

bregma, 

height 


Basion- 
bregma, 
height 








cm. 


cm. 


cm. 


cm. 


264128 




Impercept- 
ible. 


18.5 


U3.6 


(?) 


(?) 














264122 


...do.... 


Slight 


18.5 


14.2 


(?) 


(?) 






"Ayma- 














ra." 










264125 


...do.... 


Well- 


18.5 


3 13.0 


(?) 


(?) 






marked 














"Ay- 














mara." 










264130 


...do.... 


Moderate 
"Ay- 


20.4 


3 14.0 


3 12.7 


(?) 












mara." 










264129 


...do.... 


Slight 
"Ay- 


19.0 


3 13.5 


2 12.9 


3 14.5 












mara." 










264127 


Male?... 


...do 


17.8 
17.3 


13.3 
13.2 


(?) 
13.1 


(?) 


264126 


Female . 


Typical 
"Ay- 


14.6 










mara." 




■^ 






264117 more recent Viedma 


do.... 


Slight 
"Ay- 
mara." 


17.7 


13.4 


12.2 


13.4 



1 Lehmann-Nitsche gives 12.3 cm. The basion-bregma height in undeformed dolichocephalic Indian 
crania is from 7 to 12 mm. greater than that between the floor of the meatus line and bregma; in deformed 
skulls the range of variation is still more extensive. 

2 Approximate. 



hrdliCka] SKELETAL REMAINS OF EAELY MAN 303 

The forehead is narrow but not more so than in many more or less 
recent Indian skulls. Lehmann-Nitsche, who may have measured 
the specimen while it was still in better condition, gives for the mini- 
mum frontal diameter 9.1 cm. Twenty-four southern Utah dolicho- 
cephalic masculine crania, measured by the writer, show for the 
same diameter a variation from 8.3 to 9.6 cm., with the average 9 
cm.; 16 Tarahumare, from Mexico, the variation of 8 to 9.5 and the 
average 8.9 cm.; 4 Massachusetts Indian skulls the variation of 8.7 
to 9 and the average 8.9 cm.; and 6 of the deformed skulls from 
Viedma in which the forehead is not damaged range from 7.7 (No. 
264117, female, quite recent) to 9.4 cm., with the average 8.7 (average 
of the five fossil-like specimens alone, 8.9 cm.) It is evident from 
these figures that the narrowness of the forehead of the Miramar 
skull is very ordinary for America and can not be used in support of 
the antiquity of the specimen. 

The nasion depression is submedium but it is not absent. How- 
ever, a diminishing of the naso-frontal bent or angle is the rule in 
crania having the Aymara deformation and occasionally amounts 
to the entire loss of this feature. It is apparently the effect of trac- 
tion upward and backward, induced by the band that deforms the 
skull. It is seen in all the deformed skulls brought by the writer 
from Viedma and to some extent also in the specimen from the 
same locality described by Verneau (see pis. 37-41). 

The nasal process itself in the Miramar skull is of usual length and 
breadth. The orbits were of medium size, distantly approximating 
the quadrilateral in form, with borders of moderate dullness. There 
is no certain evidence that they were above the average in height, 
though if they were so it would merely agree with another common 
effect of the Aymara-like formation. 

The forehead is artificially lowered but as usual in this type of mis- 
shaped skulls there is no marked flattening. There are no well- 
defined band or pad impressions now perceptible but such may have 
existed to a slight degree, becoming obliterated by the loss of sub- 
stance on the surface of the frontal bone. There are no distinct 
frontal eminences, nor is there any median crest, conditions which 
agree with what is generally observed in skulls deformed in this 
manner. 

The supraorbital ridges are of submedium dimensions for a male. 
This may be natural, for there are rare specimens of masculine skulls 
of American natives in which these protrusions are slight, but more 
likely it is, at least partially, the result of the artificial shaping, for 
it is still another feature that often attends the Aymara deforma- 
tion. Were this not the case, then in face of what is well established 
as to the really early human remains, the small ridges would have 



304 BUREAU OP AMEBICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

to be looked on as either an infantile feature or as an example of 
recession, as is observed in these structures in the most highly civi- 
lized peoples of the actual time. Under no condition could they be 
viewed as marks of primitiveness or antiquity. The ridges also extend 
over only the median half of the supraorbital space, as in the great 
majority of Indian crania. There is the usual slant of the outer part 
of the supraorbital region, perhaps in this case slightly augmented 
by the compression of the forehead, but there is no tendency toward 
an arch such as characterizes the skulls representing well-known 
earlier forms of humanity. 

The parietal region is oval from side to side, there being no sagittal 
crest. The parietal eminences are moderate. The outline of the 
norma superior approximates to long ovoid, with the narrower end 
forward. The temporal crests are not well traceable, but evidently 
ran at a good distance from the sagittal suture. 

The occipital flattening is only moderate yet plainly perceptible. 
It extends quite high and there is no subinionic depression as in 
highly misshapen Aymara skulls, but these features are common to 
the less deformed crania of this type. They are shown by all the 
fossil-like specimens, as well as by the more recent deformed skull 
from Viedma and can be seen also on true Aymara skulls (pis. 37-41). 
It is possible that in these cases there exists a combination of the 
effects of the compress and the cradle-board. The occipital ridges 
and impressions also are not very pronounced in the Miramar skull. 

The sutures of the vault, with the exception of the temporo-parietal, 
are apparently all synostosed, but the condition of the specimen per- 
mits no exact determination of this nor of the characteristics of the 
sutures. The naso-frontal articulation is patent, at least to a large 
extent. The pterions are both of the H form and of medium breadth. 

The facial parts are very defective. The left malar shows no 
features worthy of special remark. The nasal aperture was appar- 
ently of medium breadth, as in most Indians. The nasal spine is 
broken. There are no subnasal gutters or fossse. The upper alveo- 
lar process was rather low and but moderately prognathic. 

The temporal region (left) is moderately and uniformly convex. 
The mastoids are broken, the right, which is better preserved, show- 
ing moderate masculine size. The roots of the zygomae are quite 
stout. Nowhere in these parts is there any feature that would give 
the impression of characteristics other than the ordinary in the 
Indian. 

The lateral angular processes are rather broad, though not abnor- 
mally so. The diameter between their most distal parts measures 
10.4 cm. In a male Patagonian (No. 264109, United States National 
Museum) the measurement is likewise 10.4 cm., while two other skulls 



hrdliCka] SKELETAL REMAINS OF EARLY MAN 305 

of the same sex and derivation (Nos. 264105, 264114) give each 10.5 
cm.; in the most recent female Aymara-like skull from Viedma 
(No. 264117), the dimension is only 9.9 cm. and in two of the fossil- 
like skulls from the same locality (male, 264125 and female, 264126), 
where it is possible to make the measurement, they are respectively 
10.5 and 10.7 cm. 

The palate was quite spacious, regular, of moderate depth, and there 
is no torus. The upper teeth were 16 in number, of medium mascu- 
line dimensions; these are moderately worn, with the exception of the 
last molar on the left side, which shows no wear at all; the crown of 
this tooth is also slightly higher than that of the adjoining tooth, 
all these conditions indicating an absence of the corresponding molar 
in the lower jaw. The teeth are of dirty grayish-cream color, some 
looking as if covered with a thin, old pellicle of white paint. There 
are no anomalies in form and no features at all primitive. 

Lower jaw: This bone is on the whole rather massive but of the 
usual modern Indian form. The chin is square, of medium promi- 
nence, inferiorly stout. A ventral reenforcement of the alveolar 
process, above and along the mylo-hyoid line, is quite marked and 
extends from the first molar backward; this feature is frequently 
met with in the American native. 

The teeth in the lower jaw were not well restored. It can be 
ascertained, however, that there were congenitally only three 
incisors, and only two molars on the left side. The last molar on 
the right side is anomalous, having a crown 13 mm. long by 12.5 mm. 
broad. As to measurements, the thickness of the horizontal ramus 
(at right angles to its vertical axis), 1 opposite the second molar, is 1.8 
cm.; height at symphysis, approximately 3.3 cm.; the bigonial 
diameter was about 10.9 cm. and the minimum breadth of the ascend- 
ing ramus approximately 3.9 cm. At the chin, below the mental 
spines (which themselves are very moderate), the thickness of the 
bone is 1.6 cm. 

In eight male lower jaws of Patagonians from San Xavier, Rio 
Negro, collected by the writer, the thickness at the second molar 
averages 1.7 cm., ranging from 1.5 to 1.9 cm.; while the height at 
symphysis varies from 3.5 to 4.2 cm., the bigonial diameter from 10 
to 11.6 cm., the minimum breadth of the vertical ramus from 3.5 to 
4.1 cm., and the thickness of the chin, below the mental spines, 1.4 
to 1.65 cm. 

The only measurement of the Miramar jaw that is slightly outside 
the range of the variation of this little series of specimens is the 
moderate height at symphysis. It has been noted that the upper 

J Measured in the more ordinary way =1.6 cm. 
21535°— Bull. 52—12 20 



306 BUREAU OF AMEBICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

alveolar process was also somewhat low. Both of these features 
may be due in part to reduction through age, for the teeth show 
some extrusion; but even if not so, they are signs of slight significance 
and point rather away from than to the primitive nature of the 
specimen. Yet relative lowness of the horizontal ramus, especially 
at the symphysis, often accompanies massiveness (as also exists in 
this specimen) , and both of these features are not infrequently seen 
together with a broad ascending ramus, all standing evidently in 
relation with a functional use of the jaw greater than average. 1 

But the weightiest point against any great primitiveness of the 
jaw is the presence of the chin. None of the mammals, none of 
the apes, none of the truly primitive forms of man so far known, 
possess this feature. The chin prominence of the present human 
lower jaw is to a large extent merely a remnant, the result of a great 
reduction in the ancestral size of the teeth and the length of the 
alveolar processes, the lower and less functional portion of the jaw 
lagging behind. The lower jaw, with a very much reduced chin, 
may occur even in present man and not carry any great significance 
(see under Homo sinemento), but one with a well-marked chin can 
not possibly be very ancient and can not, so far as we are now able 
to judge, come from any very early representative of the human 
family. 

Other bones of the Miramar skeleton. — Femora : These bones are of 
medium masculine dimensions. The right is somewhat pilasteric, 
with prismatic shaft ; the shape of the shaft of the left bone is interme- 
diate between prismatic and elliptic. Both bones show marked lateral 
torsion, as is frequently met with in the femora of the Indians. The 
usual bend backward is present to a moderate degree and extends 
over the whole shaft. Both bones are markedly platymeric, a feature 
which, while not exclusively Indian, is a characteristic of many of 
the Indian femora. 

The surface of the bones is more or less defective, eroded. The 
left femur possesses a moderate third trochanter; on the right the 
parts are damaged. 

The principal measurements of the two femora, with some com- 
parative data, are given below. 

The length of the bones indicates a man of medium stature, not 
far from 1.64 meters; and the other dimensions, but especially the 
pilasteric as well as the platymeric indices, agree closely enough with 
those of the ordinary natives of northeastern Patagonia. There is 
not a feature about the bones that points to any early species of 
man or to any man other than the ordinary Indian. 

1 See writer's "Contribution to the Anthropology of Central and Smith Sound Eskimo;" in Anthr. 
Papers Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., X, pt. 2, New York, 1910, pp. 170-280. 



hedliCka] SKELETAL REMAINS OF EARLY MAN 307 

Comparison of the measurements l of the Miramar and Patagonian femora 2 





Num- 
ber of 
male 
femora 


Average 
length 
(bicon- 
dylar) 


Middle 


Upper flattening 


Locality 


Diam- 
eter 

antero- 
posterior 

maxi- 
mum (a) 


Diam- 
eter 

lateral 
(b) 


Index at 
middle 
(a x 100) 


Greatest 

breadth 

(c) 


Small- 
est 

thick- 
ness 
(d) 


Index of 
platy- 
mery 

(d x 100) 




(b) 




(c) 




(Right. 
iLeft... 

1' 

1" 


cm. 

(?) 

44.0 
f 45.3 

(43.5- 
1 49.5) 
r 45.7 

(43.6- 
(. 46.8) 


cm. 

«3.2 

83.0 

3.3 
(2.6- 

3.8) 

3.1 
(2.6- 

3.3) 


cm. 
3 2.6 
3 2.4 

2.65 
(2.5- 

2.7) 

2.6 
(2.4- 

2.9) 


8 123. 
8 125. 4 
124.1 
{98.2- 
145.3) 
1X7.7 
{106. 9- 
130) 


cm. 
3.6 
3.6 
3.4 

(3.2- 
3.6) 
3.45 

(3.1- 
3.6) 


cm. 

2.65 

2.4 

2.5 
(2. 25- 

2.75) 

2.5 
(2.3- 
2.75) 


73.6 


Fossil-like bones from Vied- 
ma, Patagonia 

Tehuelche,San Xavier,near 
Viedma, Patagonia 


66.7 
73.1 

{67.6- 
78.3) 
73.0 

{67. 1- 
76.8) 



1 For details as to the significance of these measurements and indices and for data on primate, early 
human, Indian, and various racial femora, the reader is referred especially to— 

Manouveiee, L., La platymerie; in C.-R. du Congr. int. d'Anthrop. prehist., Paris, 1SS9. 

Etude sur les variations morphologiques du corps du femur dans l'espece humaine; in Bull. 

Soc. d'Anthr. Paris, 4« ser., iv, 1893. 
Lehmann-Nitsche, R., Uber die langen Knochen der sudbayerisohen Reihengraberbevolkerung; in 

Bcitrage zur Anthropologic und Urgeschichte Bayerns, xi, 1894. Separate, Miinchen, 1895, pp. 50-51. 
Martin, R., Zur physischen Anthropologic der Feuerlander; in Arch. fur. Anthr., xxn, Braunschweig, 

1894, p. 155etseq. 
Hultkeantz, J. V., Nagra bidrag till Sydamerikas fysiska antropologi; in Ymer Tidskrift utgifven af 

Svenska Sallskapet f or Antropologi och Oeograft, xvm, Stockholm, 1898. 
Klaatsch, H., Die wichtigsten Variationen am Skelet der freien unteren Extremitat des Menschen und 

ihre Bedeutung fur das Abstammungsproblem; in Ergebnisse der Anatomic und Entwickelungsge- 

schkhte, x, Wiesbaden, 1900, p. 599 et seq. 
Veeneau, R., Les anciens Patagons, Monaco, 1903. 
Bello y Rodeiguez, S., Le femur et le tibia chez l'homme et les anthropoides; Thfee p. 1 ., Doctora 

M6decine, Paris, 1909, p. 109. 

2 Specimens in the United States National Museum. 

3 Approximate. 

Tibiae : Like the femora, the tibiae are of medium masculine dimen- 
sions. Their ends are badly damaged, their surfaces eroded. They 
present the usual slight sigmoid physiologic curvature of the shaft 
and a moderate inclination backward of the head. The shaft at 
middle is in shape of type No. 3 (external surface markedly con- 
cave), 1 with the addition of a fairly well marked vertical ridge 
running down the posterior surface (approximating type No. 4), char- 
acteristics often seen in the Indian. 

As to measurements, the length of the bones can not be deter- 
mined. The principal diameters at the height of the nutritive 
foramen are, on each side, respectively, 3.9 and 2.6 cm., giving the 
moderately platycnemic index of 66.7. Seventeen male. Tehuelche 
tibiae from San Xavier, near Viedma, Patagonia, give for the same 
dimensions the averages of 3.95 and 2.45 cm., with the platycnemic 

i See Hrdli6ka, A., Typical Forms of Shaft of Long Bones; Proc. Assoc. Amer. Anatomists, 14th Ann. 
Session, Baltimore, 1900, pp. 55-60. 



308 BUREAU OF AMERICAN" ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

index of 61.6 (5 1. 2-71. 6), 1 and Bell, on 79 Patagonian tibiae, obtained 
the index of 63.8. A number of the individual San Xavier tibiae show 
measurements and indices that are very close to those of the Miramar 
tibiae. Thus, No. 264157- 9 = 3.95 by 2.65, ind. 67.1; V = 3.8 by 2.6, 
ind. 684; 'g = 4.0 by 2.7, ind. 67.5; and '71 = 3.7 by 2.65, ind. 71.6. 
These resemblances, as those in the measurements of the femora and 
other bones, do not indicate that the Miramar skeleton is that of a 
Patagonian, but they show forcibly that it is the skeleton of an 
individual related in many ways to the principal modern native type 
of eastern Argentina. 

The fibulae, of medium masculine development, are very defective. 
The shaft shows shape of type No. 4 (quadrilateral). 

The humeri are of moderate masculine strength. The upper and 
lower extremities are wanting and the length of the bones can not be 
determined. The deltoid tuberosities are well-developed. Shape 
of shaft, nearly plano-convex. 

Measurements at middle: 

Diameter maximum (antero-posterior): cm. 

Right 2.45 

Left, about 2. 3 

Diameter minimum (lateral): 

Right 1.75 

Left 1.7 

A portion of an ulna shows a fracture below the middle of the shaft. 
Fragments of the radii present no special features. 

On the whole, the bones of the skeleton other than the skull are in 
poor condition, worn and defective, and not very satisfactory for 
detailed examination. They all indicate, however, an individual of 
male sex and present no features which would make it possible to 
reach any other conclusion than that they represent the relatively 
modern aborigines of the region. It seems safe to say that had the 
Miramar skull and other bones been compared originally with suf- 
ficient skeletal material from eastern Argentina, they would occupy 
a much more modest place in anthropologic literature than, in absence 
of such comparison, has been assigned them. 

Skeletal Remains Relating to Homo Pamp^eus, from Neighborhood op 

Necochea 

history and reports 

These remains come from a place in the barren soil of the irregular 
stretch of country a short distance to the right of the new road leading 
from Necochea to the coast, and about as far inland from the large 
hotel built on the shore. The human bones lay on or near the surface, 
some of them exposed by the wheels of the wagons which passed 

i Bello y Rodriguez, S., Lef6mur et le tibia, etc., Paris, 1909, pp. 107-109. 



hedliCka] SKELETAL REMAINS OF EARLY MAN 309 

over the spot. They were first seen by the gardener, Parodi, who 
fives in the neighborhood, but were not taken out immediately; 
later on part of them were secured by a local physician, Doctor 
Faggioli, who donated them to the Buenos Aires museum, and the 
remainder were obtained later by the Ameghino brothers and Doctor 
Cavazzuti. They are partially reported on by Professor Ameghino in 
his memoir on the Diproihomo, 1 where (p. 127, footnote 3) we read as 
follows : 

"It is several months ago that my friend, Dr. Rodolphe Faggioli, 
of Necochea, donated to the Museo Nacional, at my request, a fossil 
human skull, which he found in the ancient Pampean formation of 
that place. Last April I myself made an excursion to the locality 
to study its geology. I was accompanied by the naturalist- 
traveler of the museum, Carlos Ameghino, and by Dr. E. Cavazzuti. 
We explored the coast over a stretch of 80 km. with the greatest profit, 
for I brought away a multitude of objects. Among these there are 
two fossil human skulls from the same stratum as the one mentioned 
above; of these skulls, one is in fragments, but the other is very 
complete, with the rostrum, the lower jaw, and the teeth in nearly 
perfect condition." 

As to the antiquity and principal characteristics of these speci- 
mens, it will be best to give once more Ameghino 's own words. He 
says: 

"These three skulls are of the same age as that of Miramar, on 
which I have founded the Homo pampaeus. They all present the 
same characteristics, including the excessively sloping forehead, 
which is natural and not the result of an artificial deformation, as 
has been alleged; all have the rostrum much prolonged forward and 
the alveolar border and the denture orthognathic; all present a 
glabella without backward inversion below, so that there is no 
frontonasal depression; all present the last molar placed forward 
of the most posterior part of the anterior border of the orbits; all 
show the inferior border of the orbit placed considerably more 
forward than the superior one; all are very dolichocephalic, with 
excessively narrow foreheads, great orbits, and other characteristics." 

And further on (p. 170) in the same memoir we read about the 
second Necochea cranium (third example of Homo pampseus) : 

"As in the case of the first example (Miramar), the conformation 
of the frontal region is natural without any vestige of artificial 
deformation; on this point there can not remain absolutely the 
slightest doubt." 

Notwithstanding the fact that the front is excessively low and 
very sloping, "the superior outline of the skull lifts itself gradually 

i Ameghino, F., Le Diproihomo platensis; in Anal. Mus. Nac. Buenos Aires, xix (ser. iii, t. xn), 1909, 
pp. 127, Toot-note 3, 170 et seq.; illustrations especially on pp. 171, 179, 185. 



310 BtJBEAtJ OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

toward the posterior part and, in prolonging the same to complete 
the segment which is wanting, one obtains an almost identical 
contour of the vault as that of the first-known example [Miramar], 
which is raising so much unjustified criticism. . . . 

'The prolongation forward of the rostrum gives rise to facial 
prognathism so considerable that the anterior alveolar border of the 
intermaxillary is 3 cm. more forward than the most prominent part 
of the glabella." 

One of the characteristics which according to Professor Amegliino 
distinguish Homo pampseus is the position of the teeth; these are 
said to be placed considerably farther forward than in Homo sapiens, 
a " condition which stands in relation with the primitive prognathism 
of the rostrum." To obtain an idea of this forward position of the 
denture, one needs, according to Ameghino, only to trace a vertical 
line tangent to the most posterior point of the orbital arch — this line 
passes back of the last superior molar and the same is the case in the 
first example [Miramar]. "It is then plainly a distinctive character- 
istic of this species. . . 

"This same vertical line if prolonged upward separates an anterior 
segment of the frontal bone the surface of which is flattened and 
faces upward in the Diprothomo, is feebly arched and facing upward 
and forward in the Homo pampseus, and is strongly convex in Homo 
sapiens of elevated race, forming an arch the convexity of which 
faces forward. 

[P. 173] " As to the lower jaw, the chin is very prominent. In the 
third example f 1 ] here figured the chin is as protruding as in the first 
[Miramar]. . . . This conformation, which is believed to be very 
recent, is to the contrary excessively ancient and reaches probably to 
the very origin of the Hominiens." 

The foregoing information was evidently considered sufficient, for 
it is all that we have from Amegliino on the Necochea specimens of 
the Homo pampseus. 

The Necochea finds here dealt with are merely touched on in 1910 
by Lehmann-Nitsche 2 but are considered later in that year more in 
detail by Mochi. 3 

Lehmann-Nitsche sees nothing, morphologically, in these remains 
that would separate them from the Indians; in age he regards them as 
Quaternary, Superior Pampean. 

Mochi devotes considerable attention to the Necochea skull No. 2 
(Homo pampseus, example No. 3), the specimen described and pictured 

[> Third example of Homo pampseus, illustrated in Ameghino's " Le Diprothomo" memoir, in figs. 7-11 of 
Mochi's paper and in pis. 43-45 of the present work. It is No. 500S of the Museo Nacional. The reference 
to these skulls as first, second, etc., is confusing.] 

2 Lehmann-Nitsche, R., El hombre fosil pampeano; in Bol. Ofic. Nac. Est., La Paz, Bolivia, vi, 1910, 
p. 364. 

3 Mochi, A., Appunti sulla paleoantropologia argentina; in Arch, per VAntr. e la Etn., xl, Firenze, 1910, 
p. 224 et seq. 



hrdliCka] SKELETAL, REMAINS OF EARLY MAN 311 

by Ameghino in his "Le Diprothomo platensis. " He notes that Ame- 
ghino's orientation of the specimen is incorrect; moreover, his illustra- 
tion has suffered from the specimen having been placed too near the 
camera; also there are faults in the restoration. But Mochi fails to 
recognize that the skull is deformed and that the face is so ill-repaired 
that the whole part, including the nose and the orbits, is much higher 
than naturally. The writer feels confident that, with a little more 
leisure at his disposal in the examination of the specimens, Doctor 
Mochi would have easily recognized the existence of these several 
important features. 

Mochi does not agree with Ameghino in regard to the latter' s char- 
acterizations of the glabellar and subglabellar region and especially 
as to the forward position of the denture. Both, especially the latter, 
are properly referred to the false orientation of the skull; in a similar 
pose quite the same features appear in nearly all human crania. 

Finally, Ameghino's estimate of the stature of the individual to 
whom the skull belonged appears to Mochi too small. 

OBSERVATIONS BY THE WRITER 

The skulls in question, with all the other specimens from the neigh- 
borhood of Necochea, were freely placed by Professor Ameghino before 
the writer for examination. Further, the locality of the find was 
visited. 1 The results of these investigations sustain neither the claim 
for any special morphologic peculiarity nor that of considerable antiq- 
uity for these remains. They are, in brief, as follows: 

Owing to some changes in the surface, produced by the winds and 
the blown sand, the exact spot from which the bones were taken could 
not be located, though the party was accompanied by the gardener who 
discovered them. It was, however, part of the general irregular wind- 
denuded surface which stretches inland from the coast. The wind 
erosion is not on the whole of great depth, for there are in the near 
neighborhood various piles of earth which still show the presence of 
vegetal soil and which yield numerous recent skulls and bones of the 
viscacha; these are the remnants of viscacheras which existed not very 
long ago, before the looser earth about them was blown away. 2 Over 
this denuded, uneven surface were found by the party more than thirty 
" white" and " black" chips or implements, and others had been picked 
up before by the gardener's children. As mentioned, the bones were so 
near the surface that they were exposed by the wheels of a wagon. 
So far as the gardener could recollect they represented at least one 
complete, or nearly complete, skeleton. Here was evidently a grave, 
which could not have been very deep beneath the surface of the plain 

1 Compare geologic notes on a part of the same locality, by Bailey Willis, under Homo sinemento. 
1 The viscacha burrows as a rule are found in low hillocks covered with bushes, the roots of which naturally 
retard wind erosion. 



312 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

before its erosion by the winds. No bones of fossil animals were found 
with the human bones nor have any been discovered in the immediate 
neighborhood, though from another part of these denuded coast-flats 
the gardener had extracted a number of parts of a scelidotherium. 

Homo pampseus skull No. 2 {Necochea No. 1). — The first specimen 
in the lot under consideration or, according to Ameghino's enumera- 
tion, the second example of Homo pampseus, bears the number 5004 
in theMuseo Nacional at Buenos Aires. It is a piece of the vault of 
a female skull, consisting of a portion of the forehead and portions of 
the two parietals (pi. 42). 

The specimen is in the same general condition as the other Necochea 
skull (No. 5008), the surface being deeply and irregularly eroded. 
The bones appear somewhat fossilized. On the right side, the parie- 
tals show dorsally spots of dark-gray calcareous incrustation. 

Obviously this was not a large cranium but the exact size can not 
be determined with certainty. The thickness of the bones is rather 
submedium. 

The bones show externally in two or three places signs of disease. 
These alterations are somewhat masked by the effects of erosion, but 
an examination under a magnifying glass shows plainly proliferation 
and other changes due to some inflammatory process, probably 
syphilis. 

Morphologically, the specimen presents a rather low, moderately 
convex forehead, but the latter character would be less pronounced 
were the surface of the frontal squama preserved. Just posterior to 
the coronal suture and parallel with it is a perceptible, though shallow, 
broad depression, which, with the lowness of the squama, may indi- 
cate a slight Aymara deformation. 

The nasal process is of ordinary feminine form. The glabella is 
moderate; the supraorbital ridges are small. There is no frontal or 
sagittal cres-t. 

The sutures are obliterated. 

Ventrally, the bones show no special features; the metopic ridge is 
of moderate dimensions. 

Homo pampseus skull No. 3 {Necochea No. 2). — This is the better 
preserved of the Necochea skulls. It was found with some long 
bones and other bones, but these, being damaged and in bad con- 
dition, were not collected. The specimen bears the number 5008 in 
the Museo Nacional and is in Ameghino's enumeration the third 
example of the Homo pampseus. It is a skull of an adult of advanc- 
ing age. The sex is somewhat doubtful; the lower jaw is quite mas- 
culine in character, but other parts indicate the female rather than 
the male. 

The specimen (pis. 43-45) is very defective and has been recon- 
structed to a considerable extent in mastic. The rebuilding is 




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BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 



BULLETIN 52 PLATE 45 





NECOCHEA SKULL NO. 5008. (After Mochi) 
In Museo Nacional, Buenos Aires. 



hrdliCka] SKELETAL REMAINS OF EARLY MAN 313 

imperfect, especially as regards the face. The parts present include 
both jaws, the right malar and zygoma, the frontal bone, part of the 
right parietal, and the right temporal. 

The surface of the bones of the vault is very defective and eroded, 
some of the losses of substance reaching nearly to the compact 
ventral layer. 

The bones are not heavy, yet they appear somewhat fossilized; 
at least they are largely devoid of animal matter. Some dark min- 
eral substance adheres to parts of what remains of the base. 

The skull is without doubt artificially deformed, the type of the 
deformation approaching that of the Aymara. 

There is nothing to indicate the age of the individual except the 
teeth, which show advanced wear. The condition of the sutures can 
not be determined; no trace is seen of the coronal. 

In form the skull was doubtless dolichocephalic. The face also 
was originally, in all probability, rather long and narrow, but it has 
been made very perceptibly longer by faulty reconstruction. This 
applies particularly to the orbits and the nose. 

The skull was of submedium size, though not microcephalic. 

As to detailed features, there is a fairly prominent glabella. The 
supraorbital ridges are small and there is no tendency to supraorbital 
arch. The orbital borders are only slightly dull. 

The forehead is very sloping, especially from a point about 3 cm. 
above the glabella. This slope is not natural, however, but is due to 
the above-mentioned artificial deformation. The posterior part of 
the parietals and the occipital bone are wanting, so that their exact 
character and the extent of the deformation in the rear can not be 
determined. 

The forehead is also narrow but the diameter frontal mmimum 
can not be measured or even closely estimated, owing to the destruc- 
tion of the bone on the left side and its imperfect state on the right. 
There is no medio-frontal crest. 

The parietals show but few features of interest. The eminences 
are large and quite prominent, though not pointed. 

The base presents on the right side a deep glenoid fossa; the left 
side is deficient. 

The walls of the skull were not thick. Ventrally there are seen a 
few shallow brain impressions. 

As to the facial parts, the nasal bones and the nasal process show 
no unusual features. The nasal aperture was 2.6 cm. broad and was 
probably mesorhinic, in measurement and form typical of Indians. 
The nasal spine is of submedium dimensions as compared with that 
of the whites but very ordinary when compared with the average 
form among the American natives. 



314 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

There are no subnasal grooves or fossae. The prognathism is 
medium, again as in Indians. The suborbital (canine) fossae were 
apparently shallow. The malars and zygomae are of ordinary form 
and female dimensions. 

The palate is fairly but not excessively deep, and the alveolar arch 
measures (by Turner's method) about 5.2 cm. in length and 6.4 cm. 
in breadth. 

Dentition as well as the teeth was normal. The latter are of 
feminine size; their other characteristics are obliterated by wear. 
The crown of the third lower molar on the right side appears to be 
slightly longer than that of the second but the breadth is the same; 
above, the third molars were smaller than both the second and the 
first. 

The lower jaw is entirely Indian in form. The prominence of the 
chin is well-marked. Height at symphysis, about 3.7 cm., anterior 
to the second right molar, 3.4 cm.; thickness opposite second right 
molar (at right angles to the vertical axis of the ramus), 1.25 cm. 
The height is unusual if the skull is that of a female, but lower jaws 
with high symphysis are particularly common in modern cranial 
material in eastern Argentina from the Parana to Tierra del Fuego. 

Additional Homo pampseus specimens from Nechochea. — Besides the 
defective skulls noted in the preceding pages, there were found in 
Professor Ameghino's collection at the Museo Nacional in Buenos 
Aires, under the number of one of the skulls (5004), various frag- 
ments of a skull (the fourth example of Homo pampseus?) and bones, 
all in poor condition for examination, broken and eroded. They are 
all whitish-gray or yellowish-brownish white in color and possibly 
somewhat altered in their mineral composition. 

The pieces include part of the left clavicle of a child. There are 
also several remnants of long bones which show disease, the lesions 
resembling very closely syphilitic alterations and scars; a portion 
of a femur presents also a thickening of the shaft. The pathologic 
changes are in the main of the same character as those seen in skull 
No. 5004, and the bones are in all probability part of the same 
skeleton. 

The fragments indicate an individual of moderate stature and 
muscular development; anatomically none of them shows any 
characteristic at all which could be considered out of the ordinary. 

This is all worthy of mention that the writer found in these 
earlier Necochea specimens, and it surely fails to substantiate the 
existence of anything so important as a separate species of man, a 
Homo pampseus. 

Necochea skeleton (No. 263966 U. 8. National Museum). — This 
skeleton is represented by about 150 fragments, the largest of which 
are (after repair) a portion of a humerus, 16.5 cm., and a piece of a 



hrdliCka] SKELETAL. REMAINS OP EARLY MAN 315 

femur, 8 cm. long. Most of the pieces are only slivers, and of the 
skull there are only a few remnants of little significance. 

This specimen was found by one of the gardener Parodi's children, 
some of the bones having become visible after a wind storm which 
carried away most of the material about them. They lay on a gentle 
declivity in the barren lands near the sand dunes to the southeast of 
the lowest part of the Rio Quequen, and only a few rods from the 
Necochea-sea boulevard. They were not far from the Necochea 
specimens Nos. 1 and 2, found about the same distance from the 
sea to the southwest side of the same road, and were regarded by 
Professor Ameghino as of similar antiquity. 

The bones were gathered together by the boy, but were left for some 
time on the ground near the place where they were found and finally 
became reduced to the state and quantity in which they are at 
present. Certain features of the environment of the bones as de- 
scribed by the gardener, as well as the fragments which represent 
almost all the larger parts of the skeleton, indicate that the remains 
represent one complete skeleton whose parts lay in fairly natural re- 
lation. No objects were found with the bones, but there were (even 
at the time of the writer's visit) numerous "white" and "black" 
chipped stones scattered over the elevation itself as well as in the 
denuded parts of the land in the neighborhood. 

When the writer's party visited the locality, it was found that the 
sand had already re-covered the place where the bones were found. 
However, the spot was located and, in order to understand the condi- 
tions clearly, the writer made a large circle about it and removed all 
the recently accumulated sand down to the more solid ground. When 
this was done, there was seen near the center of the clearing a shal- 
low cavity (pi. 46) 9^ inches (24 cm.) deep at maximum, slightly 
more than 3 feet (1.1 meters) long, and 33^ inches (85 cm.) at its 
greatest breadth, representing what remained of the fossa which held 
the skeleton. No additional material was discovered in digging 
about this cavity, which was evidently a remnant of a grave made 
in the former surface of the land or in the sand which covered it. 

Through the kindness of Professor Ameghino the writer obtained 
for the United States National Museum the fragments of bones 
gathered by the gardener. These are whitish to yellowish-white in 
color, in many instances worn on the surface, and in the case of some 
of the slivers worn also on the edges. The pieces of shafts of the 
long bones appear hardened, but all retain animal matter. A number 
of the fragments show adhesions of earth cemented by lime. In the 
medullary cavities the earth or fine sand is hardened where exposed 
but flows out freely from the interior. These are the same conditions 
as presented by numerous others of the "fossil" specimens dealt 
with in this report. 



316 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

Judging by the strength of the bones, they belonged probably to a 
male skeleton. Anatomically they offer but little requiring description. 

The part of the left humerus is without either extremity. As with 
all the other pieces, it has an entirely ordinary modern human aspect. 
It was of moderate length as well as strength; the maximum and 
minimum diameters near the middle are 2.0 by 1.75 cm., but both 
have been diminished through erosion of the surface. The deltoid 
tuberosity and spiral groove are well marked. The shape of the shaft 
at the middle was nearly prismatic. 

The upper portion of the left femur shows marked platymery (3.3 by 
2.15 mm., index 65.1), which brings it in close relation with the 
east Argentine Indian femora. It does not have a third trochanter. 

Portions of an ulna, fibula, pelvis, and the skull present no features 
worthy of special mention. 

All that can be said in conclusion about this skeleton is that 
neither the position of the bones nor any of their features justify 
an assumption of antiquity, nor will a new species of man be formed 
on their basis. 

Geologic Notes on the Necochea Region 

By Bailey Willis 

the necochea find 

At Necochea the plain approaches the sea with but slight altitude, 
and abreast of the town the shore is a beach surmounted by very low 
bluffs, behind which is a broad belt of drifting sand that locally rises 
into dunes as much as 10 m. high. An excavation in the town, a kilo- 
meter more or less from the sea, exhibits a section of black soil 70 cm. 
thick resting in sharply-defined contact upon laminated secondary 
limestone or tosca 2 m. thick. The upper layers of the limestone, 
although distinct from the black earth, enclose lenticular layers of it. 
On approaching the coast, one recognizes at once the drifting sands 
which the southerly wind blows along the shore from the beach. 
Beneath the layer of moving sand there is a somewhat firmer deposit 
of mingled sand and fine black earth and a more indurated formation, 
neither of which appears to contain any secondary limestone, and also 
a more indurated formation which does contain secondary limestone 
in very thin layers and in sheets filling sun-cracks. The last-named 
deposit varies in constitution from a sandy coquina to fine black loess, 
being thus composed of materials blown from the beach mingled with 
those blown from the plain. The surface is hard enough to retain the 
forms sculptured by wind and drifting sand and the material includes 
specks of black sand. These two characteristics, together with the 
occurrence of the secondary limestone or tosca, are regarded by 



hkdliCka] SKELETAL REMAINS OF EAELY MAN" 317 

Ameghino as sufficient to distinguish the formation from the Recent 
deposits and to justify placing it in the late Tertiary under the name 
of "Inter-Ensenadean." 

A careful examination of the so-called Inter-Ensenadean at this 
point showed that, as stated above, it consists of materials derived 
from the recent beach, as shell fragments, and also of black earth 
blown from the plain, where it forms the existing accumulation of 
soil. The presence of these modern materials in the formation ap- 
pears to preclude any ancient date of deposition. Since lime is 
present in abundance in the ground waters, in the soil, and as shells 
in the material itself, it is naturally taken in solution and deposited 
on evaporation by the waters that rise and fall in the coastal plain. 
Little friable concretions of lime occur even in the deposits whose 
modern age is not questioned, and the difference between them and 
the thin sheets which occur in the so-called Inter-Ensenadean is 
rather one of conditions of deposition than of age. Still it is not 
questioned that the Inter-Ensenadean is slightly older than the 
drifting sand, though undoubtedly Recent. 

The skeleton of a man was dug up in this superficial formation 
about 1 km. northeast of the Necochea Hotel, about 300 in. from the 
sea and between two large sand dunes. The material in which the 
bones were found was an incoherent brown sand, part of the forma- 
tion over which the dunes are moving. Its surface was covered with 
loose pebbles of tosca and many chipped stones. The exact point 
from which the skeleton had been taken was indicated by Senor 
Parodi, and the hole, which had filled up with sand, was carefully 
reexcavated by Hrdlicka down to the depth and far beyond the limits 
of the original excavation. The undisturbed material was distin- 
guished from that which had blown into the hole, by decidedly greater 
compactness. The opening was 1.1m. long and 85 cm. wide and had 
a maximum depth of 24 cm. As reexcavated the hole is shown in 
plate 46. 

The more compact sand in which the skeleton occurred appears to 
belong to that formation which Ameghino styles Inter-Ensenadean 
and regards as Tertiary, whereas the writer looks on it as a modern 
shore formation slightly older than the dune sands that are drifting 
across it. Precisely similar deposits were seen in process of formation 
at Miramar, as may be noted by referring to the description of that 
locality. But the age of the formation is of no importance in connec- 
tion with the age of the bones, for the shallowness of the hole and the 
lay of the bones, as described by Senor Parodi to Hrdlicka and the 
writer, clearly showed that the body had been buried. In conse- 
quence, it was even younger than the sand formation. 



318 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

Final Remarks on Homo Pamp^eus 
By a. h. 

If any Homo pampmus ever existed, it is safe to say that his remains 
have not as yet been produced. The case fails utterly thus far 
from the standpoint of geology, as well as that of anthropology. If 
the facts are carefully reviewed, it will be seen that geologically 
no substantial evidence has been brought forward favoring any great 
antiquity of the several lots of human bones assumed to represent 
this human species. And as to archeology and somatology, they 
both demonstrate that the specimens ascribed to Homo pampxus, 
the "earliest human representative — if not even a predecessor of 
man" — are fraught with no such possibilities, but that they point in 
no uncertain manner to the common American Indian. In view of 
all the facts, Homo pampseus must be regarded as merely a theory, 
without, so far as shown, any substantiation. 

DIPROTHOMO PLATENSIS 

History and Reports 

In 1896 the laborers employed by a firm of contractors in exca- 
vating a dry dock, now known as No. 1, at Buenos Aires, discovered 
a human skull. The specimen came to light at the commencement 
of the work on the rudder-pit, an additional small cavity in the bot- 
tom of the nearly finished dry-dock excavation. 

An account of the circumstances of the discovery was published in 
July, 1909, by Professor Ameghino. 1 According to this: "The frag- 
ment of skull in question was found during the last stages of the work 
of deepening the port of Buenos Aires, in the excavations for the dry 
docks, in the north basin in dock No. 1, or that of the west. It was 
found in the deepest part of the excavation, even deeper than the 
floor of the dry dock itself, in a hollow made in the base of this for the 
manipulations of the rudder. There were some more osseous debris, 
but Mr. Junor, 2 having arrived somewhat late at the place of the dis- 
covery, was not able to save more than the specimen under considera- 
tion [p. 107]. . . . 

"At the point where excavation for the dry-dock has been made the 
bed of the stream is 1.86 m. below the surface of the water at the ordi- 
nary low tide and the base of the dry dock is 10.50 m. below the bed 
of the stream; in other words, the latter is 12.36 m. below the level 
of the water. The additional hollow made in the bottom of the dry 
dock for the accommodation of the rudder is 50 cm. deep, and it 

i Ameghino, F., Le Diprothomo platensis, un precurseur de l'honime du pliocene inferieur de Buenos 
Aires; in Anal. Mus. Nac. Buenos Aires, xix (ser. iii, t. xn), 1903, pp. 107-209. 

2 A senior member of the Corps of Superior Employees of the works in the Port of Buenos Aires, and 
supervisor of the work. 



BSBfcigKA] SKELETAL REMAINS OF EARLY MAN 319 

Was in digging out this additional basin that the skull was encountered. 
Accordingly, the latter lay at the depth of 11 m. below the bed of the 
stream, 12.86 m. below the ordinary level of the water at low tide, 
or 32 m. below the star on the portico of the Buenos Aires Cathedral. 
. . . All the information concerning the position of the skull has 
been furnished me by Mr. Edward Marsh Simpson, engineer and 
representative in Buenos Aires of the house of Charles H. Walker & 
Co., of London, the constructors of the port" (p. 108). 

Professor Ameghino concludes from the information obtained from 
Mr. Simpson alone that the fragments of the skull came from the 
lower portion of the rudder-pit in Dry Dock No. 1 and from beneath 
tosca. 1 He states further, however (p. 121), that beneath the tosca 
was found a layer of quartzy sand followed by a stratum of gray 
clay, and that it was in this layer of gray clay, 50 cm. below the floor 
of the dry dock, that the skull-cap of the Diproihomo was discovered. 

The foregoing are rather meager details concerning a specimen of 
so great importance. In consequence, the first endeavors of the 
writer and his associate, Mr. Willis, after reaching Buenos Aires, 
were to locate Messrs. Simpson and Junor as well as any others who 
might be able to give firsthand information, and to learn if possible 
additional particulars. 

As good fortune would have it, both Mr. Simpson and Mr. Junor 
were found in Buenos Aires and both consented, very kindly, to tell 
what they knew in regard to the skull; and through these gentlemen 
it became possible to locate another person concerned in the find, 
namely, Mr. J. E. Clark, now of Bahia Blanca, the foreman of the 
laborers who discovered the specimen. 

The results of the inquiry, however, proved in a large degree dis- 
appointing. The evidence is very largely indirect and, as ,16 years 
have elapsed since the date of the find, during 15 of which no inquiries 
about it were made, the details, possibly even some important 
points, have been forgotten or have become obscured. This state- 
ment applies especially to the exact conditions at the rudder-pit and 
to facilities that might have existed for the transportation thither, 
accidentally or voluntarily, of the skull fragment. 

Mr. Simpson stated that the find of the bones was made by the work- 
men; he was told there were more than one skull but neither he nor 
any other official of the firm was at the dock at the time of the find, 
nor was any investigation of the matter made. Mr. Simpson had 
nothing to do with the piece of skull or any other parts, made no 
examination of the spot, saw nothing of the specimen until after it 
was placed in the museum, and can not vouch for any statement 
made in connection with the discovery. He told Professor Ameghino 

1 Term applied, as explained before in this work, to calcareous sedimentary strata or concretions, in 
various stages of development, within the loess. 



320 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

what he remembered having heard and furnished him with a sketch 
of the geologic formation as seen in the excavations for the docks, 
without locating the specimen. The excavations in Dry Dock No. 1 
were never carried beneath the tosca except in the rudder-pit. 

Mr. Junor states that he did not see the find, but was told of it 
the next day, or perhaps the second day after, by the foreman, Mr. 
Clark. No effort was made by Mr. Junor to examine the hole from 
which the bones came or to find or collect other pieces, for this might 
have resulted in delaying the work. He had an impression that 
there were five or six skulls discovered and that the workmen played 
hoclias 1 with them, thus breaking them into fragments, but this 
seems to have been an error, as will appear later. The foreman 
brought Mr. Junor two pieces of the skull, and the latter saved them 
because they were said to have come from beneath the tosca, giving 
them later to the Museo Nacional. He had not been asked before 
by any one for details concerning the finds and is not responsible for 
any illustrations that may have appeared in print. No notice was 
taken for many years of the pieces he donated until they were taken 
up recently by Professor Ameghino. He has seen the specimen 
since — now only one piece, probably made by joining the two frag- 
ments; there is no doubt that the specimen is the same he donated. 

As to the place from which the bones came, he remembers having 
been informed that the workmen had gotten through the floor of 
the dock into a sort of quicksand when the bones were encountered. 
Owing to this quicksand, the rudder-pit had to be concreted after- 
ward to prevent entrance into the dock of water and sand. The 
bones must have been just beneath the tosca, for a small quantity 
of tosca was adhering to them. No animal bones were found in the 
pit or in this dock, and Mr. Junor has no recollection that any other 
human bones came to sight. He did not examine the site from 
which the skull fragments given him were supposed to have come. 
No inquiries were made of the laborers. 

Mr. Clark states in his letter that the skull "was found at the 
commencement of the Rudder Pit at dock bottom"; he "is quite 
sure the skull was found at the Rudder Pit and under tosca"; and 
"it was the only one found in that locality, but there was another 
skull found in the sand at the entrance to Dock No. 4," which dis- 
appeared without his knowing what became of it. Further, he does 
not remember whether or not there were any loose bones. 

Mr. Junor adds the following note: 

"Clark told me the men had been playing 'bochas' with the skull; 
evidently they had only been tossing the one skull backward and 

i A game played extensively in Argentina with wooden balls, which are rolled or thrown to strike and 
group with others. 



BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 



BULLETIN 52 PLATE 47 




Here are shown the exposed walls of the Pampean terrane and alluvium, the drain leading to the 
sump, or well, and the pumping machinery close to the side walls of the gate. 




Here are shown the walls of the Pampean formation and alluvium still exposed after the concrete 
floor had been laid, with the sump and.pumping machinery as in the view above. 

EXCAVATION FOR DRY DOCK 

(From original photographs in office of C. H. Walker & Co., Buenos Aires.) 



hrdliCka] SKELETAL, REMAINS OF EARLY MAN 321 

forward. I supposed they had actually played at 'bochas, ' which 
would require half a dozen skulls, hence my belief that five or six 
skulls had been found, whereas only one was found in the Rudder 
Pit." 

The foregoing meager information concerning the circumstances of 
the find was all that could be gathered. This differs from that pub- 
lished by Professor Ameghino mainly in that the specimen is repre- 
sented! to have been found not in the lowest but in the upper part 
of the rudder-pit, and in sand instead of clay; also, that another 
human skull was found in sand at Dock No. 4, but nothing more 
definite is known as to its exact position. Finally, the excavations 
for Dock No. 1 yielded no bones of animals. In Dock No. 3 a 
glyptodon skeleton was found in the tosca, and there was also a mas- 
todon tusk at about the same level (Simpson). 

Mr. Willis and the writer visited the dry dock, saw the rudder- 
cavity, and later on, through the courtesy of Mr. Simpson, they 
were able to obtain the photographs reproduced in the accompanying 
illustrations (pis. 47, 48), which show the condition of the dry dock 
at the time the rudder-pit was being excavated. 

The specimen donated to the Museo Nacional by Mr. Junor was 
discovered in recent years in the collections of that institution by 
Professor Ameghino, studied minutely by him, and described 1 as a 
remnant of the skull of Diprothomo platensis, from the standpoint of 
evolution a second or premediate forerunner of man, who lived in 
the Lower Pliocene. 

This far-reaching determination Professor Ameghino supports by 
an exhaustive geologic and comparative anatomic dissertation, the 
principal items of which are given in the following paragraphs. 

As mentioned before, Professor Ameghino states that the fragments 
of the skull came from the lowest portion of the rudder-pit and that 
they lay in a stratum of gray clay below the tosca, which constitutes 
in part the floor of the dry dock, and below a subjacent layer of 
quartzy sand. The gray clay he identifies as belonging to the upper- 
most portion of the Pre-Ensenadean stratum, which is the most 
inferior part of the Pampean formation (p. 120), and belongs to the 
base of the Pliocene. 2 

i Ameghino, F., Le Diprothomo platensis, un priicurseur de 1'homme du pliocene inferieur de Buenos 
Aires; in Anal. Mus. Nac. Buenos Aires, xix (ser.iii, t. xn), 1909, pp. 107-209. Pages cited below follow 
the work here cited. 

* On page 116 the lower part of the Pliocene is represented as occupied by the Post-Puelchean hiatus, 
while in the table on page 124 the lowest part of the Pliocene is given to the Pre-Ensenadean, and the Post- 
Puelchean hiatus occupies the first part of the Miocene. 

21535°— Bull. 52—12 21 



322 



BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 



[bull. 52 



In a table on page 124 Professor Ameghino gives the stratigraphic 
position of the Diprotliomo and also of other ancient remains relating 
to early man or his predecessors in Argentina. It is as follows: 



>> 




Recent. 


a 


Platean. Querandine traBsgression. 


03 

3 
O? 


Post-Lujanean hiatus. 


Homo sapiens. 




_o 

e 

t-l 

«2 
3 

09 

Pi ■ 


Lujanean, and corresponding marine transgression. 


Arrecifesand Ovejero skulls. 




Post-Bonaerean hiatus. 




superior. 
Bonaerean^ 


Fontezuelas, Arroyo de Frias, Sam- 
borombon. 


IS 


[inferior. 


Baradero, Chocorl. 


£ 

H 


Belgranean transgression. 


Industrial vestiges only. 


o 


Post-Ensenadean hiatus. 


p* 


Cuspidal Ensenadean. 


Homo pampxus, Miramar (La Tigra), 
Necochea. 




Inter-Ensenadean transgression. 




Basal Ensenadean. 


Industrial vestiges only. 




Pre- Ensenadean. 


Diprothomo platensis (vault of a skull). 





O 

+3 
03 

a 

u 

<2 

03 
1 

o 
<1 


Post-Puelchean hiatus. 


CO 


Puelchean, and corresponding transgression. 


Industrial vestiges only. 


s 

o 


Post-Chapalmalean hiatus. 




Chapalmalean. 


Industrial vestiges only. 


ft 


Post-Hermosean hiatus. 




Hermosean. 


TetraprotJiomo argentinus (atlas, fe- 
mur). 



As to the name adopted for the new being, Professor Ameghino 
says (pp. 126-127): "The piece of skull found in the port of Buenos 
Aires is of a different genus from Homo, but one which by all its 
characteristics should, equally with the TetraprotJiomo , be considered 
a real precursor of man, though nearer to man than the fourth fore- 
runner I adopt for this new genus the name of Diprothomo, 

which I created in 1884 1 for the designation of the second precursor; 
of man, the characteristics of which I have equally [with those of 
the TetraprotJiomo] constructed by calculation. The species I qualify 
as platensis, to recall the provenience of the specimen from below the 
bed of the great stream, the Rio de la Plata." 

The line of evolution leading to man, and the position therein of 
the Diprothomo, TetraprotJiomo, and the various other remains of 
South America attributed to early man, are, according to Professor 
Ameghino — it may be repeated — as follows : 



i Filogenia, 1884, p. 380. 



hrdliCka] 



SKELETAL REMAINS OF EARLY MAN" 
■HOMrNID^ 



323 



Homo 

sapiens 

Homo 

primi genius 



Homo sapiens 
Homo pampseus / 
Homo ' 
Prothomo 



Diprothomo 
platensis 



Triprothomo, 



Tetraprothomo 
argentinus 



Primitive 

hominidse 




Anthropo- 
Pithecan- Pseudhomo morphidse 

thropus heidelbergensis 




Homun- 
culidee 



Anthropops 



Homunculus 



Pitheculites 



Clenialites 



As to the anatomic features of the Diprothomo skull, Professor 
Ameghino advances in substance the following: 

The skull was of small size, below the mean of human crania. Its 
capacity could not have exceeded 1,100 c.c, its greatest length 17 cm., 
and its greatest breadth 11.8 cm. 

The skull possesses a very low vault; its front is so low that it sur- 
passes in this feature the Neanderthal cranium. 

The skull was narrow, with the parieties almost parallel and with 
a contour like that in the Arctopitheci; its greatest lateral diameter 
did not fall in the region of the parietals as usualbut on the frontal; 
it was highly dolichocephalic, its breadth-length index being about 69. 

The frontal is very long and narrow, as in some of the lower Pri- 
mates. 



324 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [boll. 52' 

The parietals must have been decidedly shorter than the frontal; 
their maximum length in horizontal line could not have exceeded 5.5 
cm., their surface arc 9 cm. 

The skull differs markedly from that of man in its antero-posterior 
curvature, which commences to descend even in the posterior part 
of the frontal squama; the rear part of the specimen shows a rapid 
descent backward and downward, and the occipital could not have 
been seen from above. 

There is a large postglabellar depression, which resembles that in 
the gibbon and the Ardopitheci and does not face forward as in 
man, but nearly upward. 

The supraorbital ridges are narrow (5 mm.) proximally, and broad 
(15 mm.) distally; they become effaced near the outer side of the 
frontal eminences. 

The glabella in its inferior portion is completely distinct from that 
of man; it presents a marked prolongation forward and lacks com- 
pletely the backward inversion of its lower part. 

The naso-frontal suture is different from that of man; above it is 
rounded but wide and it continues to widen as it descends, so that at 
"the inferior level of the frontal it must have had a transverse diam- 
eter of nearly 3 cm.". 

The superior orbital borders are very slightly arched; their distal 
portions constitute a slender, nearly cutting border, which is different 
from that found usually in man, and represents the primitive form of 
the visor; the median part of each supraorbital arch is very stout 
(15 mm.). 

The roofs of the orbits do not pass backward, as in man, but a few 
millimeters to the rear of the orbital border turn downward, a feature 
from which it appears that the orbital cavities were very shallow and 
that the eyes must have been very protruding; the small depth of the 
orbit superiorly was undoubtedly compensated for by a greater exten- 
sion forward of each inferior part and there was pronounced facial 
prognathism; the orbital cavities were large, placed far forward, and 
visible to a great extent when looking at the skull from above. 

The fronto-nasal suture is situated very nearly at the level of the 
superior border of the orbits; a horizontal line crossing it passes 
through the superior orbital borders. 

The surface of insertion of the nasal bones looks forward; the nasal 
bones extended straight from the frontal and were very strong as 
well as very wide; also, they were directed forward with only feeble 
inclination downward. 1 

i For numerous additional details of less importance the reader must be referred to the original. 



hrdliCka] SKELETAL REMAINS OP EARLY MAN 325 

The Writer's Examination of the Specimen 

The writer reached Buenos Aires with the foregoing data before him 
and in consequence thereof with very eager expectations. But 
when the specimen itself was placed before him by Professor Ameghino 
there followed a rapid disenchantment, for it proved at every point 
antagonistic to the notion that had been formed of it on the basis of 
the published data. The first impression, in fact, amounted to incre- 
dulity as to its being the relic in question. 

However, the specimen was subjected to a prolonged study and 
comparison, which resulted as follows: 

The bone is a portion of the skull of an adult male, who, judging 
from the state of the coronal suture, was approaching middle age. 

It is free from all deformation, effected either during life or post- 
humously. 

It presents no pathologic features with the exception of an old 
shallow moderate-sized scar, situated just above the left frontal 
eminence. The injury left a trace also on the ventral surface of the 
bone, but is of no importance in the considerations that follow. 

The surface of the fragment seems to show a slight calcareous cov- 
ering and is discolored (wax to limonite-brown) , particularly on the 
inside. The stained parts possess some luster, especially ventrally. 
The surfaces of the frontal sinuses are covered by a calcareous de- 
posit resembling a thin pellicle of brown wax. The thin walls of bone 
between the frontal sinuses and the cranial cavity appear to be 
wholly infiltrated with calcareous and ferruginous matter, and the 
color of the interstitial parts of the bone where broken is blackish. 
There are similar black deposits in some of the cavities of the diploe 
in the postero-external part of the free edge of the left parietal and 
there may be some interstitial infiltrations. Finally, in several of 
the exposed diploe cells of the broken edge of the left parietal are 
seen remains of light earth with minute white crystals, possibly fine 
sand. Notwithstanding these conditions, the bone when struck does 
not sound as one highly mineralized and is not much heavier than 
normal. Furthermore, in ground as rich in lime salts as the pam- 
pean loess neither the above-mentioned discoloration nor these de- 
posits can afford any index of antiquity. 

Discolorations similar to those presented by the skull were found 
on numerous pieces of tosca recovered from the not very old strata 
exposed in an excavation for a new house in Buenos Aires (in Calle 
25 de Mayo). They result from the deposition on such articles as 
calcareous concretions, bones, stone, etc., of ferruginous and perhaps 
other salts dissolved from the ground and carried by water, and in 
common with calcareous sediments in the cavities or on the surface 
of objects need under favorable circumstances no great duration of 
time for their formation. 



326 BTJKEATT OP AMEKICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 



ANTHROPOLOGIC CHARACTERISTICS 



In a detailed study of the specimen it soon became plain that 
almost the entire original description by Ameghino had miscarried 
by reason of the fragment having been placed and considered in a 
wrong position. It had been viewed not in the indispensable 
approximation to either of the standard skull positions recog- 
nized in anthropology, but just as it lay on some pedestal or on the 
table. This accidental and faulty position of the fragment had 
changed the inclination of the plane of the articular surface. for the 
nasal bones, had made the glabella and especially the roofs of the 
orbits look more forward, had changed a supraglabellar to a post- 
glabellar space and made the same look nearly upward, had caused 
the forehead to appear much lower than it is and had given 
the sagittal line a slope backward different from that which it 
possesses. All these results of faulty orientation combined have 
helped to make the specimen look extraordinary and primitive, even 
unhuman. 

The first step in the writer's examination of the fragment con- 
sisted in placing it in the position it would occupy in the alveolo- 
condylian plane of the skull. But as this could not be accomplished 
directly, owing to the defective nature of the specimen, an entire 
skull was looked for having a nearly related form and the same 
nasion-bregma diameter, which could therefore be utilized with pro- 
priety as a model. Such a specimen was found in No. 52, a modern 
male Indian cranium of unknown provenience, in the Museo Na- 
cional, Buenos Aires, which not merely presents a frontal of the same 
length as the Diproihomo fragment, but resembles the latter also in 
other particulars. This specimen was brought into the alveolo- 
condylian plane, the inclination of the nasion-bregma axis was ascer- 
tained and then the Diproihomo specimen was placed so that its 
nasion-bregma axis formed the same angle as the model, with the 
horizontal (pis. 49, 50). 

The results of the observations made were as follows: 

The nasion was found to be 6 mm. beneath the horizontal line 
connecting the uppermost parts of the borders of the orbits. 

The location of the point is undoubtedly high, but among 78 more 
or less modern Indian crania of the Museo Nacional collection, which 
were examined and measured for comparison, there were 9 in 
which its situation was equally high or even higher. The list below 
shows the distance of the nasion in these skulls from the line connect- 
ing the highest points on the superior border of the orbits (outside 
of the orbital foramina or canals) : 

mm. 

Diprothomo 6.0 

No. 3. Patagonian, male 4. 

No. 25. Calchaqui, male 4. 5 

No. 52. Indian, tribe not stated, male 4. 5 



BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 



BULLETIN 52 PLATE 49 




THE ORIGINAL OF THE "DIPROTHOMO" SKULL 

Posed with the nasion-bregma plane approximated to that of another Indian skull, in which the nasion- 
bregma diameter is of the same value, and winch shows form-relation to this specimen. 



BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 



BULLETIN 52 PLATE 50 




THE ORIGINAL OF THE "DIPROTHOMO" SKULL 

Top view; fragment posed as in plate 49. 



HRDLiCka] SKELETAL REMAINS OF EARLY MAN 327 

mm. 

No. 13. Patagonian, male 5. 

No. 42. Indian, tribe not stated, male 5. 

No. 23. Patagonian, male 5. 5 

No. 33. Araucanian, male 5. 5 

No. 79. Calchaqui, male 5. 5 

No. 49. Indian, tribe not certain, probably male 6. 

These measurements show clearly that the situation of the nasion 
in the DiprotJiomo skull is very much like that in at least 15 per cent 
of the ordinary South American Indian crania. 

The backward inversion of the lower part of the nasal process below 
the glabella, with the consequent nasion depression, exists, and the 
latter, while not deep, was quite as pronounced as in the average 
Indian or even white male. Of course, when the fragment is inclined 
backward more than it should be, both of these features become less 
appreciable. However, no great biologic importance could be at- 
tached under any conditions to these characteristics as found in a 
single case, for they are subject to considerable individual variation. 
The nasal process is convex from side to side, as usual in man. It 
measures 38 mm. in breadth between the supraorbital foramina and 
was about 26 mm. broad at its lower end, both of which dimensions 
are often met with in the modern Indian. In three masculine skulls 
belonging to the United States National Museum collection, a 
Piegan from Montana, an ancient Peruvian, and a Patagonian, they 
are respectively, 41 and 26, 44 and 27, and 42 and 27 mm. ; while in 
11 other male Patagonian skulls in the institution the lower measure- 
ments range from 23 to 27 mm. 

The fronto-nasal suture presents a nearly semicircular form, as in 
the majority of modern Indian skulls. 

The separation of the branches of the fronto-nasal suture at points 
10 mm. distant from the nasion and corresponding closely, if not 
exactly, with the limits of the naso-frontal articulation, is 14.5 mm. 
A measurement of the diameter between corresponding landmarks, 
i. e., between the points at which the fronto-nasal changes to the 
fronto-maxillary suture, in 50 Peruvian and Patagonian skulls taken 
at random, showed an average of 12.5 mm., and 8 of the specimens 
(16 per cent) gave from 14.5 to 17 mm. This demonstrates the fact 
that the breadth, equally with the shjape, of the fronto-nasal articular 
surface (with the intercalated nasal spine) in the dry-dock specimen 
can not be regarded as exceptional. 

The depth of the nasal notch is somewhat exaggerated by the loss 
of the nasal spine. The maximum breadth of the articular surface 
on each side of the spine did not exceed 7 mm., a feature which points 
to a fairly, but not excessively, strong frontal border of the nasal bones. 
This border is always the stoutest part of the nasalia, particularly in 
adult males, though, like other dimensions of the nasal bones, it pre- 
sents a considerable range of individual variation. 



328 BUREAU OP AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY' [bull. 52 

Finally, as to the inclination of the fronto-nasal articular surface, 
it was found that a line drawn on the left, or better-preserved, side 
from the nasion to the inferior end of the surface, forms with the 
nasion-bregma axis an angle of 71°, almost exactly the same as in a 
Piegan skull used for comparison (see pi. 51) and very much like that 
found in the average Indian. Naturally, the more the fragment is 
tilted backward, the more nearly vertical this surface becomes, as 
would be the case in any other frontal. 

Resuming the subject, it is seen that the various characteristics of 
the nasal notch, particularly when the fragment is placed in approxi- 
mately the position it would occupy in a naturally-posed head, are 
not merely entirely human but such that they may easily be taken 
for those of a modern Indian and in fact they could be even those of 
a modern white. On the other hand, they present important and in 
many instances radical differences from similar structures in the an- 
thropoid apes as well as in the lower Primates, including the Arcto- 
pitheci. 

The glabella presents a considerable, though by no means unique 
or especially unhuman, prominence. It is not massive. The region 
is brought forward, as can be seen from the broken parts below, by 
extraordinary development of the frontal sinuses, particularly their 
median chambers (pis. 49, 50, 52). 

The following measurements relating to the protrusion of the gla- 
bella in the Diproihomo skull will make possible comparison with 
other specimens: An antero-posterior line from the center of the 
glabella to the ventral wall of the frontal bone, slightly to one side 
of the metopic ridge, on the right 22 mm., on the left 20 mm. ; same, 
directly in the middle line (to a point 5 mm. above the foramen 
caecum), 23 mm. 

The prominence and form of the whole supranasal part of the 
frontal, though rare, can both be duplicated among Indian crania 
(see pis. 52, 53). They would not appear as they do in the Dipro- 
tJiomo fragment were the distal halves of the supraorbital ridges of that 
fragment well-developed ; as it is, they are prominent over the median 
half and practically absent from the distal half of the supraorbital 
space on each side, a condition which accentuates the impression of 
protrusion of the middle region. And, what is more important, they 
are not inferior, zoomorphic characteristics. They diverge from, 
rather than approximate to, the specimen from Primates lower than 
man, for in these the glabella attains no prominence and no similar 
shape. 

The unhuman appearance of the glabella in the drawings pub- 
lished with the first description of the specimen is due to the position 
the bone was given, and to the artist's interpretation of what he saw. 




O P 



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6 1 a 
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> 

o 

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< 

h- 
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O 
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CO 



BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 



BULLETIN 52 PLATE 52 




MODERN INDIAN SKULLS-GLABELLAR REGION 

a, Piegan (No. 243672); 6, Patagonian (No. 262149); c, Peruvian (No. 266141), all in IT. S. National 
Museum. Comparable, with respect to glabellar region, to the Diprothomo specimen. All are posed 
in the alveolo-condj-lar plane; the maxilla? and malars are occluded. 



hrdliCka] SKELETAL REMAINS OF EARLY MAN 329 

The frontal sinuses themselves differ somewhat on the two sides. 
On the right there is only one large cavity with a slight indication of 
a dividing septum ; on the Jef t there are a more median, antero- 
superior, partial septum, and another more complete wall about 
3 cm. from the median line, in all three imperfectly separated spaces. 
The more median chamber on the left measures approximately 
3 + cubic centimeters (15 by 15 by 20 mm.) in capacity and that on 
the right was even more spacious. 

The supraorbital ridges arch, as already mentioned, over the 
median half of the supraorbital space on each side, following quite 
closely the curve of the orbital borders, exactly as in many modern 
Indian skulls. The ridges are prominent but not at all comparable 
with the heavy supraorbital welts of the Neanderthal and Spy skulls 
or even with those of some of the Australians. Their prominence is 
due not to size or massiveness but to the protrusion of the median 
parts of the outer wall of the frontal, caused by the large frontal 
sinuses. They would be regarded as quite ordinary in a masculine 
skull with fuller forehead. They are equaled and exceeded in some 
masculine crania of the modern Indian and occasionally even in those 
of whites. 

The supraglabellar plane offers no extraordinary feature except 
that it is somewhat better marked than usual, owing to the prom- 
inence of the subjacent glabellar region. It is entirely human and 
modern in character, and the same is true of the moderate depression 
above the supraorbital ridges. 

The distal halves of the supraorbital borders are normally formed; 
they are not massive or sharp, just ordinary. There is only a vestige 
of the supraorbital arch of the lower Primates, as usual in well- 
developed modern human crania. The planum supraorbitals is well- 
defined, smooth and slanting, precisely as in many modern masculine 
Indian skulls. In the lower Primates, especially in the adult males, 
this region is contracted, more or less deficient, and radically unlike 
that in man. 

The lower portion of the cerebral part of the frontal is wide, wider 
than the average in the Indian, the diameter frontal minimum meas- 
uring 9.8 cm. This is surely no sign of primitiveness or inferiority. 

The forehead is somewhat low and sloping as compared with well- 
developed skulls of the whites but is not exceptional if compared with 
the average masculine crania of Indians, particularly those of the 
dolichocephalic type. A number of modern Indian skulls were shown 
by the writer in his report relating to man's antiquity in North 
America * with lower and more sloping foreheads than in the Dipro- 

1 Skeletal Remains Suggesting or Attributed to Early Man in North America (Bulletin S3 of the Bureau 
of American Ethnology, p. 99 et seq. and pis. xn-xxi). 



330 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

thomo. The curve of one of these, a modern and otherwise normal 
Piegan, is shown here in contrast to that of the Diprothomo (pi. 51). [*] 

The frontal eminences are distinct. In the median line there is 
scarcely a trace of an antero-posterior ridge and in consequence the 
superior outline of the norma anterior was quite oval. There is no 
asymmetry and the whole formation of the frontal squama speaks 
for its ordinary recent human character. 

The frontal bone does not give the impression of exceptional length, 
nor of exceptional narrowness ; in fact, the conditions in regard to 
the latter particular are quite the reverse, as already partially shown 
by the dimension of the smallest frontal diameter. The arc or 
surface measurement from nasion to bregma is 12.6 cm., exactly 
the same as in No. 52 of the Museo Nacional, and a number of 
crania were found in the same collection in which it was very simi- 
lar. In No. 33, the skull of the Araucanian Cacique Panchito, the 
nasion-bregma arc measures only 11.3 cm., while in Nos. 3 and 13, 
both male Patagonians, it reaches 13.9 cm. A frontal arc of 12.6 cm. 
is a very common feature of modern Indian crania, as well as of those 
of other races. The maximum breadth of the frontal amounts to 
about 11.4 cm., a very fair average for a dolichocephalic or mesoce- 
phalic Indian. 

The temporal ridges are rather submedium in development for a 
male and run at a good distance (slightly less than 6 cm. on each 
side) from the sagittal suture. This is unequivocal proof that the 
temporal muscles were developed far less than in any adult male 
Primate below man, less even than in many a human savage. They 
were developed only about as much as they are in the modern, 
even in the civilized, man, a fact which leads inevitably to the 
conclusion that the jaws of this individual were of only moderate 
dimensions and that therefore the face could not have been massive 
or protruding. 

In harmony with the distant and moderate temporal crests, 
the anterior part of the sagittal region shows only traces of elevation 
or ridge, which terminate at the summit. The latter is fairly dis- 
tinct, 3.5 cm. posterior to the bregma. 

The inclination of the fore part of the sagittal line when the frag- 
ment is placed in proper position is very slightly downward, but it 
is precisely so in the skull used as a model. (See pi. 51; also pi. xv 
in Bull. 33, B. A. E.) When the specimen is laid farther backward, 
the inclination of the line of the sagittal suture changes of course 
and points more nearly downward in direct ratio to the tilting. The 
posterior portion of the suture shows a descent, such as can be seen 
in many not unusually long modern crania. 

1 To insure accuracy, in the case of the Diprothomo the curve was drawn with a fine-pointed pencil along 
the cast of the fragment, cut in the median line, while in the Piegan skull it was drawn similarly along 
the nasion-bregma line of a cast of the frontal part of the specimen. 



hrdliCka] SKELETAL. REMAINS OF EARLY MAN 331 

There is every indication that the parietals were of normal 
modern-human shape and size. The horizontal length of what 
remains of them is actually 6.3 cm. There is absolutely no evidence 
that the parieties of the skull were parallel or that the maximum 
biparietal did not exceed the greatest frontal diameter. 

The orbits were of ordinary dimensions. The breadth of that 
on the right, from the lower extremity of the fronto-nasal suture to 
the point of meeting of the orbital border and the fronto-malar 
suture, is 39 or at most 40 mm., which is about the Indian average. 

So far as can be judged from their upper portions, the orbits also 
were of no unusual form. The arching of the sifperior border is 
moderate but not subnormal, especially for a male. If a line is 
drawn from the nasion to the point of intersection of the fronto- 
malar suture and the limiting line of the orbit, the maximum 
elevation of the upper border of the orbit above this horizontal is 
9 mm. ; in a Peruvian male (No. 266023, U.S.Nat.Mus.) and in a Pata- 
gonian (No. 262149), neither selected for lowness of orbits, it is 
equally 9 mm., in the before-mentioned Piegan it is 9.5 mm., and in a 
Patagonian from San Xavier it is 8 mm. From a line connecting 
the orbital extremities of the two fronto-malar sutures, the highest 
point of the border is distant 16 mm. 

The roof of the orbits, which received prominent attention in the 
original report on the Diproihomo, presents, when the skull is 
properly posed, no unusual feature. What appeared to be a peculiar 
inclination was due to the same cause as the apparent slope down- 
ward of the sagittal region, namely, the tilted position of the speci- 
men. If a piece of an ordinary Indian skull corresponding in size 
to that of the Diproihomo be laid by the side of the latter in a similar 
position, or if the casts of the orbits from this and other skulls be 
compared, we find that the roof is similarly inclined in both, and 
also that in most masculine Indian crania which do not show more 
massive or protruding supraorbital arches the concavity of the outer 
part of the roof is somewhat shallow. Such shallowness was found in 
a number of the crania in the Museo Nacional, especially in No. 25, 
as well as in Nos. 3, 13, 23, and 42, and in numerous specimens in 
the United States National Museum. There is therefore no ground 
for an assumption that the eyes were bulging. 

Finally, there is no indication, nor any probability, that the lower 
orbital borders protruded forward, so that they would have been 
visible from above with the skull in a standard position. 

As to the vault sutures, the coronal is ventrally all obliterated 
but dorsally well traceable so far as the bone is preserved. The 
sagittal suture is patent both ventrally and dorsally. The serration 
of both the coronal and the sagittal is well-developed and actually 
more complex than usual in the Indian. The breadth of the serration 



332 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

of the sagittal increases in width as usual from before backward, 
reaching 11 mm. at the break. 

Ventrally, the Diprothomo fragment shows some rather large 
depressions for Pacchionian bodies and shallow impressions of brain 
convolutions. The cavity for the frontal lobes is fairly spacious 
and the frontal portion of the brain was broadly rounded from side to 
side, as general in modern man. The metopic ridge is very moderate. 

Finally, the thickness of the Diprothomo bone, ranging from 3.5 to 
7.5 mm. for the frontal squama and from 4.5 to 9 mm. for the 
parietals, is quite ordinary as compared with the same measurement 
in the Indian and" even in the white. 

As to the size of the Diprothomo skull when entire, the evidence 
available indicates that it was between 18.5 and 19 cm. long, and 
between 13.6 to 13.9 cm. broad. It was fairly but not very high; its 
capacity was surely not below 1,350, more probably between 1,400 
and 1,500 cc. 

CONCLUSIONS 

The sum of the results of the writer's study of the Buenos Aires 
skull fragment, regardless of its uncertain history, is that the 
specimen fails utterly to reveal any evidence which would justify its 
classification as a representative of a species of ancient Primates, pre- 
mediate forerunners of the human being, the Diprothomo. Every 
feature shows it to be a portion of the skull of man himself; it bears 
no evidence even of having belonged to an early or physically primi- 
tive man, but to a well-developed and physically modern-like human 
individual. While this individual was in all probability an Indian, 
a decisive racial identification in the absence of so many important 
parts of the specimen is impossible. The few peculiarities which the 
skull possesses are, even if taken all together, of only secondary bio- 
logic importance, such as are found in many Indians. The faulty 
anthropologic status given the specimen in the first report thereon 
was in the main the result of the before-mentioned fundamental 
error of placing and considering the fragment in a wrong plane, an 
incident which only accentuates the need of placing all similar speci- 
mens having an apparent or real bearing on man's antiquity, in 
the hands of an experienced anthropologist. 

The ordinary nature of the fragment will be further appreciated 
from the measurements given in the table that follows: 



hrdliCka] SKELETAL. REMAINS OF EARLY MAN 

Diprothomo — Comparative measurements 



333 



Skulls 

(Museo 

National, 

Buenos 

Aires) 


Nasion- 
bregma 
diame- 
ter 


Uppermost point 
on upper orbital 
border, to 
bregma. 


Point of contact of 
outer orbital bor- 
der and fronto- 
malar suture, to 
bregma 


Diameter 
between 

most 
external 
points on 
lateral 
angular 
processes 


Diameter 
between 
points of 
contact of 
orbital 
borders 

and 
fronto- 
malar 
suture 


Diameter 

frontal 

minimum 


Diameter 
frontal 


Right 


Left 


Right 


Left 






cm. 


cm. 


cm. 


cm. 


cm. 


cm. 


cm. 


cm. 


cm. 


Diproth. 


11.6 


10.9 


11.0 


11.8 


11.7 


10.7 


9.9 


9.8 


about ' 11.5 


32 


12.3 


12.0 


11.9 


12.9 


12.5 


11.0 


10.0 


8.7 


11.6 


7 


11.2 

12.3 


10.7 
11.8 


10.6 
11.7 


11.6 

12.8 


11.4 
12.6 


11.2 
11.1 


9.8 
10.0 


8.7 
9.5 


11.2 


13 


12.5 


23 


10.2 


9.8 


9.9 


10.8 


11.2 


10.8 


11.1 


9.2 


11.3 


25 


11.4 


11.1 


11.0 


12.3 


12.4 


11.3 


10.2 


9.85 


12.9 


33 


10.4 
10.7 


10.0 
10.3 


10.3 
10.4 


10.9 
11.4 


11.5 
11.6 


11.2 
10.3 


10.3 
9.3 


9.0 
9.8 


11.1 


42 


11.3 


43 


10.2 


9.8 


10.2 


10.6 


11.2 


10.4 


9.8 


9.0 


10.3 


49 


10.7 


10.2 


10.3 


11.1 


11.3 


10.3 


9.3 


9.1 


near 11.3 


52 


10.9 


10.7 


10.7 


11.8 


11.9 


10.8 


9.85 


10.0 


11.9 


79 


11.2 


10.7 


10.8 


11.6 


11.7 


11.2 


10.5 


9.6 


11.6 



1 Between intersection of temporal ridges and coronal suture, 11.2 cm. 

2 The principal dimensions of the vault of these skulls are as follows: 

Basion- 

bregma 

Length Breadth height 

cm. cm. cm. 

No. 3, male, Patagonian, not deformed , principal diameters 19. 9 x 14. 3 x 1 4. 3 

No. 7, male, Patagonian, not deformed 19. x about 14. 7 x 14. 

No. 13, male, Patagonian, not deformed 19. 1 x 14. 6 x 14. 5 

No. 23, male, Patagoman, not deformed 17. 7 x 14. x 13. 8 

No. 25, male, Calctiacjui, occiput flattened 15. 9 x 15. 3 x 14. 9 

No. 33, male, Araucanian, not deformed about 17. 5 x 14. x 12. 9 

No. 42, male, tribe? not deformed 17. 2 x near 13. 7 x 13. 5 

No. 43, male, tribe? not deformed about 17. 1 x about 13. x 13. 6 

No. 49, male, tribe? not deformed 17. 2 x 13. 2 x 13. 3 

No. 52, male, tribe? not deformed 18. x 14. x 13. 3 

No. 79, male, (probably) Calchaqui, occiput flattened 16. 9 x 14. 1 x 13. 3 

Additional Reports on Diprothomo 

Between the date of the original publication on the Diprothomo, 
by Ameghino, and the completion of the writer's study of the speci- 
men embodied in this report, a number of publications on the subject, 
some of considerable importance, have appeared. Regrettably, not- 
withstanding the weight of the problems involved and the unsatis- 
factory condition of the data, in some quarters the new " precursor" 
is being accepted with scarcely any critical reflection, as demon- 
strated, but, as will be seen, there are also other opinions. 

A good abstract of Ameghino's memoir on the Diprothomo is given 
by Rivet in L' Anthropologic 1 There is no discussion of the subject, 
the reviewer ending his note with the expression that he ' ' limits him- 
self, without regret, to the role of a strict analyst." 

» Vol. xx, Paris, 1909, pp. 573-576. 



334 BUREAU OP AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

Sergi accepts Ameghino's main contentions without question and 
utilizes the Argentine finds, altogether too readily, in support of his 
theory of polygenism, 1 formulating on their basis a new classification 
of the human family. 

Buschan enumerates the principal finds of Ameghino, 2 and reviews 
the "Le Diprothomo platensis" in his periodical. 3 He accepts appar- 
ently the Ameghino reports as for the most part satisfactory, hesitat- 
ing only in regard to the American origin of man in general and to 
the continuation in America of the human line from the "precursors" 
to the Indian. 

Senet publishes a resume of the Ameghino finds relating to early 
man, 4 without critical consideration. 

In the early part of 1910 the specimen is again spoken of by 
Sergi, 5 who as before accepts in the main Ameghino's conclusions and 
bases on the existence of the Diprothomo and other ancient remains 
of South America a special classification. The Tetraproihomo and 
Diprothomo constitute together parts of the genus Proanthropidse, 
family Homunculidx. 

At about the same time the principal Argentine finds, including the 
Diprothomo, are given, as if they were established cases, by L. Wilser. 6 

On the occasion of the Seventeenth Congress of Americanists, held 
in Buenos Aires in May, 1910, while the subject was being studied by 
the present writer, the Diprothomo skull was examined also by A. 
Mochi, and his conclusions have since appeared in a brief publication. 7 
Mochi declares that "from the commencement of my study of the 
specimen I became convinced that the major part of the character- 
istics attributed to this new genus depend strictly on the orientation 
given the fragment by Ameghino and were based solely on a complex 
of subjective views." The specimen was brought, by the help of the 
remaining orbital parts, into a more natural position, and as a result 
it "acquired a thoroughly human physiognomy." Nevertheless the 
skull presents a number of characteristics, ' ( such as the extreme low- 
ness of the vault, the form of the orbital arches and the glabella, 
perhaps the direction of the coronal suture, the small inclination 
backward of the nasal apophysis of the frontal bone, etc., on account 
of which we can consider it as representing a quite particular human 
type, and one so much more interesting in proportion (subject to 
contrary proof), as it is considered to have come from a geologic 

1 Sergi, G., L'apologia del mio poligenismo; in AM Soe. row,, antr., xv, fasc. 2, Roma, 1909, pp. 
187-195. 

2 Buschan, G., Das Alter des Menschen in Amerika; in Die Umschau, xm, 1909, pp. 949-956. 
s Buschan, G., in Zentralblattfilr Anthropologic, xiv, Braunschweig, 1909, pp. 368-371. 

4 Senet, R, Los ascendientes del hombre segiin Ameghino; in Boletin de la Instruccidn Publico, n, No. 6, 
Buenos Aires, pp. 1-52. 

5 Sergi, G., Paleontologie sud-Amencaine; in Scientia, vrn, Bologna, 1910, pp. xvi-4. 

6 Leben und Heimat des Urmenschen, Leipzig, 1910, pp. 17-22. 

i Mochi, A., Nota preventiva sul Diprothomo platensis Ameghino; in Revista del Museo die la Plata, xvn, 
Buenos Aires, 1910, pp. 69-70. 



hrdliCka] SKELETAL REMAINS OF EARLY MAN 335 

horizon much more ancient than those to which belong all the other 
human remains known to date." 

In September, 1910, there was published an answer to the above 
by Ameghino, 1 some parts of which deserve to be reproduced here 
in full. 

Speaking of the anthropologists who during the earlier months 
of that year came to see or study the Diprothomo, Ameghino states: 
"I was able to note that the first impression produced by the sight 
of the specimen was one of surprise; then came reaction and they 
searched by one procedure or another, to pose the fragment so as to 
give it or make it assume a form resembling more or less that of the 
corresponding part of man. To obtain these results I have seen 
employed procedures which I do not believe to be scientific, for 
operating thus I could give a human aspect to the callotte of a chim- 
panzee and an aspect of a chimpanzee to the skull-cap of a human 
being." Doctor Ameghino does not understand why anthropologists 
are led to believe that he erred in the orientation of the specimen and, 
in respect to Mochi's contentions, makes the following double-edged 
admission: "What is most curious about all this is, that it is pre- 
cisely those characteristics which Mochi makes disappear by a new 
posing of the skull which, according to my view, characterize clearly 
the Diprothomo, and which lead me to say that the Diprothomo is 
zoologically, in the broadest sense and without the possibility of a 
doubt, a genus distinct from 'Homo.' . . . 

"I still think," Ameghino says, "in the same way. I am con- 
vinced, or I shall say more — I am almost certain, 2 that the orienta- 
tion which I gave the specimen in question is, if not absolutely the 
same at least very close to that which it must have had in life. I 
have figured it in the highest possible degree of elevation, so that I 
believe it could be placed still somewhat lower. It will be compre- 
hended consequently that it is not possible to arrive at contrary 
results except by false posing and I believe that the one adopted by 
Doctor Mochi is of that nature." 

In the remaining part of the paper Ameghino proceeds to prove 
by further minute examination, with the help of a fine steel wire, 
that his former conclusion, particularly in regard to the glabellar 
and subglabellar region of the fragment, are correct, and that "the 
characteristics which he has given are real and incompatible with a 
different orientation of the specimen." Particular stress is laid on 
the defect of the subglabellar part of the frontal process. In his 
words, "The inferior glabellar projection is formed by that part of the 
glabella or the interorbital prolongation of the frontal which descends 

i Ameghino, F., Sur l'orientation de la calotte du Diprothomo; in Anales del Museo National de Buenos 
Aires, xx (ser. iii, t. xm), 1910, pp. 319-327. 
2 "Je suis convaincu,je dirai plus, j'ai la presque certitude." 



336 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

below the superior orbital borders. This descending part is develop od 
more or less in man, but it is never missing. It is completely absent 
in the Diprothomo." 

The conclusion is that "notwithstanding the characteristics which 
approximate the Diprothomo to man, he departs from the same more 
than the Anthropomorphs and the larger part of other apes by the 
features which I have examined/' And the last sentence is especially 
noteworthy: "The anthropologists can class it in the genus Homo, 
but from the point of view of the zoologists and the paleontologists 
it constitutes a distinct genus, one which is considerably removed 
from that of man." 

Toward the end of 1910 1 Mochi published his second paper on the 
"fossil" human remains of Argentina but the Diprothomo receives no 
further consideration. Soon afterward, however, Ameghino published 
two more papers on the subject of the Diprothomo and some of the 
other "fossil" human remains of Argentina previously described by 
him. The first of these notes will be referred to later. In the second 
Ameghino 2 deals further with Mochi' s statements. He points out that 
the Italian writer made his observations (in regard to the Diprothomo 
as well as on the other specimens he examined) too hastily and that 
he "falls very frequently into errors more considerable than those he 
pretends to correct." As to the geologic questions, Mochi "treated 
them superficially and without even a mediocre knowledge either of 
the facts or of the corresponding literature." As to the more recent 
strata, especially, his presentation "is a veritable pele-mele of ideas, 
facts, and of almost inextricable quotations, where the facts are 
tortured under all possible forms to make them accord with the 
prejudices which here burst from all sides" (p. 62). And there is 
more of this, for which, however, the reader must be referred to the 
original. It will suffice to say that the paper is devoted principally 
to the refutation of Mochi' s statements of a geologic and paleon- 
tologic nature, Ameghino defending and retaining without any 
modification his position concerning the Diprothomo as well as the 
other finds he described. To Mochi' s statement about the lack of 
proofs for the great age (Pliocene) of some of the human remains 
Ameghino answers that, "in closing one's eyes in presence of proofs, 
one forms for himself the illusion that they do not exist — which has 
happened to M. Mochi. The Pliocene age of the Pampean formation 
remains unshaken and consequently the human remains which it 
incloses are clearly of Pliocene age" (p. 72). As skeletal remains of 
man of Tertiary age have not been found elsewhere and "abound" in 

1 Mochi, A., Appunti sulla paleoantropologia argentina; in Arch, -per VAntr. e la Etn., XL, Firenze, 
1910, pp. 203-254. 

2 Ameghino, F., L'age des formations sedimentaires tertiaires de 1' Argentine en relation avec 1'anti- 
quite de Phomme; in Armies del Museo National de Buenos Aires, xxn (ser. iii, t. xv), 1911, pp. 45-75. 



hrdliCka] SKELETAL REMAINS OF EAELY MAN 337 

Argentina, it follows that "the place of origin and the center of dis- 
persion of man was the southern half of South America. . . . This 
conclusion is in perfect accordance with all the other facts that relate 
to man and in line with his physical characteristics. . . . The 
very abundance of those human remains indicates that one is at their 
point of origin and in the region of their greatest differentiation." * 

In the lines quoted below, Ameghino mentions the discovery of 
another ancient species of man. In a recent letter to the writer he 
stated that there has just come to light, in the central pampa, another 
u Hiproihomo" and the reference in the publication at hand applies in 
all probability to the same specimen, but it is now placed as "another 
intermediary type between Diprothomo and Homo." This makes 
already the sixth type of "hominiens," profoundly distinct from one 
another and from Homo sapiens, from the province of Buenos Aires, 
.and "these six species of hominiens, cantoned in the same country, 
prove with all the eloquence of facts without appeal that here exists 
the center of origin, diversification, and dispersion of the human 
genus." 

The remainder of the paper is given to reassertions concerning the 
antiquity of the various objects other than skeletal remains which 
have been reported from Argentina as signaling the presence of early 
man and which Mochi regards in general as of doubtful character. 
"The material of this kind which has been accumulated at the Museo 
Nacional of Buenos Aires is so considerable and contains pieces that 
are so characteristic, that only the blind could fail to recognize therein 
the hand of man — and the blind are to be pitied, nothing more." 
And there are announced new objects of this nature, from the Enter- 
rian and Superior Eocene formations; also "eoliths," found from the 
Eocene onward. These vestiges, as well as incised, cut, scraped, 
and split animal bones, and objects showing the effects of fire, of 
similar antiquity, occur in the same strata with osseous debris of the 
most ancient precursors of the liominiens ( = Anthropos, etc.), "to 
whom then- first industrial vestiges can also be attributed." 

"It is seen," Professor Ameghino continues, "that it does not 
matter from which point of view the case is considered; be it from 
that of the antiquity and abundance of fossil human bones ; be it from 
that of the variety and great differentiation of fossil liominiens, or from 
that of the presence of skeletal vestiges of man's forerunners and of 
the precursors of the hominiens, which are totally absent from 
Europe; or be it finally from that of ancient industrial traces — 
South America possesses more ancient, more numerous, and more con- 
vincing documents than those that have been furnished up to this 
time by the old continent." 

1 " L'abondance meme de ces debris, indique qu'on est sur leur point d'origine et dans la region de leur plus 
grand developpement." 

21535° —Bull. 52—12 22 



338 BUEEAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

The anthropologic discussion of Mochi's opinions is reserved by 
Ameghino for still another occasion and the paper ends without hav- 
ing brought forth what could be regarded as the slightest additional 
evidence on the Diprothomo, or on any of the other Argentine 
discoveries. 

In a short paper, published toward the end of 1910/ referring to a 
lecture given in June of that year, Lehmann-Nitsche gives in regard to 
the Diprothomo skull the following: "It is probable that a human 
frontal bone discovered years ago in a dry-dock of the Puerto Madero 
(Buenos Aires) proceeds also [like the remains of the Baradero 
skeleton, p. 258] from the intermediary Pampean formation; by its 
characteristics it is distinguished in nothing from the corresponding 
bone of skulls that are derived from the Superior Pampean and con- 
sequently from the actual ones. There is, therefore, no justification 
for attributing this fragment to a new species or even a new genus of 
the Hominidx and for calling it Diprothomo platensis, as has been 
done by Senor Ameghino." 

At about the same time as the last-mentioned article there appeared 
an important contribution to the Diprothomo question, by Schwalbe. 2 
No one is more competent to deal with questions relating to the mor- 
phology of man, particularly early man, than this author and his 
statements claim careful attention. In addition the paper contains 
an interesting contribution by Steinmann on the age of the formation 
in which presumably the specimen was discovered. 

Steinmann regards the pampa formation as Quaternary. If the 
skull lay under a layer of tosca, it might be of a young diluvial age, 
or about as ancient as the Mousterian remains in Europe; but if it was 
not under the tosca, then it might be of even a very late alluvial 
origin. 

In subsequent fines Schwalbe cites two other opinions concerning 
the Diprothomo. The first (p. 222) is from a letter by Lehmann- 
Nitsche, in which the correspondent states that "the skull-cap in 
question has long been known to him but that he was not able to see 
anything about it which would differentiate it from human," The 
other quotation is from a manuscript reference to the Paleontology 
of Vertebrates, by Deninger, to the effect that Ameghino 's data con- 
cerning the Diprothomo are based simply on false orientation of the 
specimen. 

Schwalbe himself finds that first of all the outline figures in Ame- 
ghino's memoir on the Diprothomo do not harmonize with the photo- 
graphic ones, exaggerating some of the features. In the second place, 
Ameghino 's reconstructions of the skull are wrong, worthless, and 

1 Lehmann-Nitsche, R., El hombre fosil pampeano; in Bol. Oftc. Nae. Estad, La Paz, Bolivia, VI, 1910, 
pp. 363-366. 

2 Schwalbe, G., Studien ziix Morphologie der siidamerikanischen Primatenformen; in Zeitschr. fur 
Morph. und Anlhr., Band xm, Heft 2, Stuttgart, 1910, pp. 209-258. 



hrdliCka] 



SKELETAL REMAINS OF EARLY MAN 



339 



can not possibly correspond to conditions that actually existed. 
But, what is most important, the posing of the fragment was wholly 
incorrect and is responsible for the apparent resemblances to lower 
forms on which was based the genus Diprothomo. A number of 
Alsatian skulls were found to show characteristics of the frontal bone 
closely approximating those of the Buenos Aires fragment (fig. 50). 
"The skull-fragment of Diprothomo is that of a true man" and the 
size of the skull was very respectable. The frontal bone is not 
excessively narrow nor too long, "its breadth falls within the range 
of variation of the Alsatian crania," and its length, as well as the 




Fig. 50. Norma lateralis of Diprothomo fragment (shaded, and bounded by hatch-line) and 
Ameghino's "completion" of such fragment (shaded and bounded by broken line), compared 
with norma lateralis of Alsatian skull (unshaded and bounded by solid line). (After Schwalbe; 
slightly reduced.) 

length-breadth index of the bone, is not seldom exceeded in modern 
man's skulls. Nor is there any indication that the parietals were 
relatively or absolutely too short. "All the rest of the features dwelt 
upon by Ameghino are referable to a wholly false orientation of the 
specimen." 

On page 235 Schwalbe gives an illustration showing the differences 
in Ameghino's posing of the fragment and its consequent appearance, 
with an approximation of the same to the horizontal plane used by 
the German anthropologists. This drawing is here reproduced 
(pi. 54). 



340 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

In regard to the position of the nasion with relation to a horizontal 
line connecting the uppermost parts of the superior orbital border, 
Schwalbe finds that, first of all, its high situation is encountered 
occasionally in man; second, the point is located at various distances 
below the line mentioned and on the whole lower than in man, in the 
American apes; and third, it is also, notwithstanding Ameghino's 
statements to the contrary, situated below that line (4 mm. as measured 
on the cast) in the Diprothomo. In consequence, the feature can not 
be regarded as a distinctive generic characteristic, separating the 
Diprothomo from man. There has existed also a nasion depression. 
The thickness of the interorbital part of the fragment compared with 
the biorbital breadth, shows itself to be well within the human varia- 
tion and the inferior frontal construction is thoroughly human in type; 
finally, the greatest breadth of the skull was as usual in the parietal 
region. 

"The fragment belongs to an entirely ordinary Homo sapiens and 
is equal in all parts to the most recent skulls of man. Ameghino's 
Diprothomo is to be stricken from the evolution-line leading to man." 
Subsequent examination by Schwalbe on the cast of the skull-cap only 
confirmed all the above observations. 

The only comment the present writer can make on the above by 
Professor Schwalbe is that he agrees with every word written. 

Another critical reference to the Diprothomo is made by Friede- 
mann, which appeared toward the end of 1910, in the Zeitsclirift fiir 
Ethnologic. 1 After giving the principal points from Ameghino's 
report on the Diprothomo and after pointing out the discord that 
exists between Ameghino and other observers in regard to the age of 
the formations in which the fragments were discovered, Friedemann 
says: "When Ameghino's data are tested critically there arises at 
once the question as to the orientation of the specimen. . . . Ame- 
ghino regards the callotte as it lies on the table, as ' naturally posed,' " 
the specimen assuming in this way the characteristics which Ameghino 
describes. When the fragment is properly elevated, "a considerable 
part of the given pithecoid features disappear;" . . . the naso- 
frontal articulation "is then directed forward no more than backward." 
The nasion is situated (on the cast) 3 mm. beneath the horizontal 
line connecting the uppermost planes of the border of the orbits. 

On the basis of the foregoing and other considerations Friedemann 
reaches the result that for the present "we are not justified to see in 
the Diprothomo a proof for the correctness of the opinions expressed 
by Ameghino; it is much more possible to accept the probability 
that the skull-cap of the Diprothomo does not differ much from that of 
recent man." 

i Friedemann, M., Vorlage ernes Gipsabgusses des Schadeldaches von Diprothomo platensis Ameghino; 
in Zeitschr.fur JSthn., Berlin, 1910, Heft 6, pp. 929-935. 



hedliCka] SKELETAL. REMAINS OP EARLY MAN 341 

In discussion of the preceding communication 1 v. Luschan 
remarked that when he first learned of Ameghino's publication on the 
Diprothomo, he hoped that it would pass without notice, in which, 
regrettably, he was mistaken. "I want to say without reservation 
that I regard Ameghino's description as completely erroneous 
(vollstandige Entgleisung) . In another South American periodical 
there was once described with much emphasis a newly discovered 
intermediary form between the Amphibia and fishes, which afterward 
developed to be a tadpole. Ameghino's Diprothomo is scarcely a less 
sad error (Entgleisung) and must positively be refused to be accepted 
for what it is given. When the fragment is properly posed it becomes 
at once clear that it can proceed only from man who did not differ 
in the least from the normal average present-time European. Every 
large cranial collection contains dozens of modern skulls from Europe, 
Asia, America, and Oceania, from which could be cut out a piece 
entirely equal to that representing the Diprothomo. I place here 
side by side illustrations of one such piece and that of the Dipro- 
thomo fragment, and I also beg you to compare the skull from which 
the piece is derived with Ameghino's attempt at a reconstruction 
[of the skull of the Diprothomo]. ... I believe that no more words 
are necessary to demonstrate the absolutely untenable nature of 
Ameghino's conception." 

In the middle of February, 1911, Ameghino published his before- 
mentioned third paper which deals with the Diprothomo. In this he 
devoted himself particularly to the subject of the orientation of the 
specimen. 2 In the first paragraph we read: "The anthropologists, in 
their researches on the orientation which should be given to the 
Diprotliomo callotte, continue to employ the method of direct compari- 
son with man, seeking to give the fragment a position similar to that 
which a corresponding part occupies in man. The particular con- 
formation of this specimen appears to their eyes only in a human form 
and, naturally, proceeding in this manner they obtain very different 
results from those which I have reached." And on the second page: 
"My morphologic conception is independent of measurements and of 
all mechanical procedure or of that of precision. In this case, having 
always in mind a perfect idea of simian morphology in general, my 
eyes judge on the basis of this conception, and I have more con- 
fidence in what my eyes see, in accord with my knowledge, than in 
all the mechanical procedures and measurements that can be imag- 
ined. I can turn the callotte of i the Diprothomo in all the possible 
positions, turn it even upside down, and my eyes will always see it 
of the same form. I accept mechanical procedures, or those of 

i See Friedemann, Vorlage eines Gipsabgusses des Schadeldaches yon Diprothomo platensis Ameghino; 
in Zeitschr.fiir Etlin., Benin, 1910, Heft C, pp. 935-938. 

2 Ameghino, F., La callotte du Diprothomo d'apres 1'orientation frontoglabellaire; in Anales del Museo 
National de Buenos Aires, xxn (ser. iii, t. xv), 1911, pp. 1-9, pis. 1-4. 



342 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

precision, simply as a means of confirmation of what is expressed to 
me by morphology." 

And then, not moved in the slightest in his notions of the case by the 
various criticisms, Ameghino proceeds to develop an " absolutely exact " 
mode of cranial orientation or posing of his own. He invents an instru- 
ment (" cranio rientor ") , consisting of a vertical stand with a long hori- 
zontal branch and a shorter terminal descending part. The latter is 
applied to " the central glabellar point," which for Ameghino is the point 
of intersection of the antero-posterior median line with a horizontal 
passing between the highest points of the superior border of the two 
orbits. The second landmark is "the most elevated point of the 
skull, that is to say, the central point of the vertex." ... " These two 
points, united by two lines that form a right angle, give the natural 
orientation of the skull." The two branches of the " cranio rientor " 
supply these two lines. "To use this instrument, one places the 
skull, skull-cap, or frontal, on a wooden base in such a manner that the 
glabella comes in contact with the perpendicular descending branch 
of the instrument. Then, with the help of two superposed wooden 
wedges, the specimen is elevated or lowered until the perpendicular 
branch touches tangentially the central glabellar point. This 
obtained, the fronto-glabellar orientation of the skull has been reached, 
and on making the horizontal branch descend, this will come against 
the culminating point of the skull; that is, against the center of the 
vertex." The result reached by this procedure is shown in the 
accompanying illustration. The author states that he "does not 
pretend that the methods of orientation now in use should be aban- 
doned for this one"; it is only to supplement them, as one more 
applicable to isolated frontal portions of skulls and one which will 
give more exact and less variable results. (PI. 55.) 

Oriented with the help of this instrument, the Diprothomo frag- 
ment "takes an absolutely different pose" from that of the skull of 
the present man or of the Neanderthal man, and also from that of a 
chimpanzee. "The vertex falls fully on the frontal, toward its 
posterior two-thirds. [ x ] The bregma remains much farther back. 
Immediately behind the vertex which, as seen, is placed extraor- 
dinarily forward, the rear curve of the skull descends rapidly, 
indicating an extremely low skull, a characteristic of inferior apes. 
Finally, one sees the enormous length of the frontal bone and the 
direction of the coronal suture which, instead of being transverse, 
descends obliquely forward in a form which is seen only in the mon- 
keys and especially among American monkeys, as in the Eriodes, 
Ateles, and a number of others." 

['"Vers ses deux tiers posterieurs"; the exact sense of this, as of some other of Doctor Ameghino's expres- 
sions, is difficult to determine.] 



hrdliCka] SKELETAL REMAINS OF EARLY MAN 343 

The concluding remark of the paper is: "The capital point to which 
I call attention is that the orientation which the callotte of Diprothomo 
assumes in the craniorientor is absolutely the same as that which I 
have given it on the basis of its morphologic characteristics. This 
orientation confirms therefore all the distinctive features which I 
attribute, in my preceding publications, to the Diprothomo. ." 

Finally, in a terminal footnote of the paper just considered is 
found Ameghino's preliminary response to Schwalbe's study of tho 
specimen under consideration. It reads: "At the moment of cor- 
recting the last proofs of this paper I learn of a recent publication by 
Professor Schwalbe — where, by means of comparisons that are simply 
empirical and with an arrogance that is almost aggressive, he affirms 
that my description of the Diprothomo rests on a false orientation of 
the callotte; besides which the work is a general criticism of my re- 
searches and my theories. My present memoir and former paper on 
the subject suffice to demonstrate that so far as the posing of the 
specimen is concerned he is in error. Nevertheless, I intend to 
counter-criticize the unfounded or badly founded criticism of Pro- 
fessor Schwalbe, in a forthcoming communication." 

Notes on the Diprothomo Find 
By Bailey Willis 

The supposed antiquity of the fragment of skull which represents 
the Diprothomo of Ameghino is deduced geologically from the state- 
ment that it was dug out of the undisturbed Pampean formation 
beneath the Rio de la Plata in making the hole which was to serve 
as a rudder-pit in the floor of a dry dock. As there is no witness 
to the fact that it was actually found in place in the Pampean, it is 
peculiarly important to ascertain all attendant circumstances. To 
this end, Doctor Hrdlicka and the writer called on Mr. Junor, who 
was immediately in charge of the dock construction at the time the 
fragment was found, and who had furnished the data .published 
regarding its original position. 

Mr. Junor was found at his home in Flores, a suburb of Buenos 
Aires, on the evening of May 7, 1910, and we were most courteously 
received. He appeared to be about 70 years of age, of sanguine 
temperament, still enthusiastic as in youth, and an ardent believer 
in the antiquity of man in Argentina. He recited freely his recol- 
lection of the finding of the skull, stating in substance: The piece of 
skull was brought to him by the foreman of a gang of workmen who 
were digging out the rudder-pit. He (Mr. Junor) was very much 
occupied at the time by duties of supervision of construction and did 
not see the skull taken out, nor did he examine the place afterward 
to see where it came from; but he had no doubt that it came out of 



344 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

the well, "probably" from between a layer of tosca and the un- 
derlying sand. The skull was said to have been found by a work- 
man, who passed it to the foreman, who in turn gave it to Mr. Junor. 
The workman can not now be identified. It does not appear that he 
ever was questioned as to how the bone was found. Mr. Junor remem- 
bered that several skulls were found and that the workmen played 
bochas with them. In this game balls are tossed or rolled along the 
ground, and the skulls were thus broken up until only the fragment 
that is known as Diprothomo remained. But this recollection was 
afterward corrected by Mr. Junor to the original statement that the 
fragment alone was found. 

On one point Mr. Junor was positive: The fragment of skull was 
taken out of the well. And although this statement rests on the 
say-so of the foreman who was told so by a workman, it appears to 
be the one item in the early history of the find that is not open to 
serious doubt. How, then, did the hard smooth skull-cap get into the 
well? Was it originally embedded in the Pampean terrane or did 
it happen to fall into the hole from some previous resting place ? 

The writer had understood that the dry dock was built out in the 
Rio de la Plata and had assumed that the space was inclosed by a 
caisson, an engineering device for excluding the water, which would 
necessarily keep out also any bones that might be buried in the river 
mud. When questioned on this point, Mr. Junor agreed that a 
caisson must have been necessary, but he could not clearly remember 
the structure. Subsequent inquiry at the office of C. H. Walker & 
Co., the contractors who built the dry dock, developed the fact that 
there was no caisson. The dry dock was excavated in the flat, which 
was awash with the water surface. The river was easily excluded 
by an embankment and the great excavation was kept dry by pump- 
ing from a sump or well at the lowest point. When the dock had 
been dug out a concrete floor was laid, then concrete walls were built, 
and when they were completed, the well for the rudder-pit was finally 
cleaned out and walled up. It was in digging the well that the 
Diprothomo was found. How it got there can not be positively ascer- 
tained, but two possibilities present themselves, namely, that it came 
there accidentally either before or after the dock excavation was 
made. During all the work up to the finishing of the walls the 
Pampean earth and river mud had stood exposed. Any objects con- 
tained in the material excavated or in the standing earth exposed at 
the side might have found their way into the close vicinity of the 
rudder-pit, if not into the pit itself. Three photographs which show 
the conditions were chosen from a number courteously shown us by 
Mr. E. M. Simpson, manager for the contractors; these are repro- 
duced in plates 47 and 48. The first shows the finished excavation 
with walls of earth all about, a floor of earth and down the center a 



hrdli&ka] SKELETAL REMAINS OP EAELY MAN 345 

drain leading to a sump or well (later the rudder-pit), above which, 
is the pumping machinery. Plate 48 represents the finished dock 
and shows the rudder-pit in the position where the well had been. 
During the progress of the work the river deposits, which no doubt 
contain remains of natives drowned in the Rio de la Plata, were com- 
pletely exposed. 

The second possibility is that the skulls, skull, or fragment came 
to the spot where found years before the building of the dock 
began. The character of the river bank was favorable to acci- 
dental burial to a considerable depth. We were told by Dr. Fran- 
cisco P. Moreno that he, when a boy, used to go swimming where 
the dry dock now is, in deep pools, whose general character is indi- 
cated in plate 56. The photograph represents the bank at Ancho- 
rena, a suburb of Buenos Aires, but a few kilometers from the dry 
dock, where the Pampean terrane is of the same nature. The river 
has worked out deep irregular holes into which anything like the 
skull-cap called Diproihomo would readily sink and where it would 
become buried lower than the surface of the Pampean, but beneath 
recent river mud. 

In view of the facts established by the photographs and of the 
probabilities suggested by the character of the river bank, the writer 
can not give weight to Mr. Junor's belief that the unknown workman 
who found the skull and gave it to the foreman who in turn gave it 
to Mr. Junor really dug it out of undisturbed ancient Pampean. 

Concluding Remarks on the Diprothomo 
By Ales Hedlicka 

The new publications on the subject referred to in preceding pages 
are found to necessitate no change in the remarks and conclusions 
already presented by the writer. Schwalbe has considered the spec- 
imen from some additional standpoints, but the results are always 
the same : they show the fragment to be simply human and much like 
the corresponding part of a modern human skull. As to Ameghino's 
additional papers, they only tend to make the case against his far- 
fetched notions the stronger by accentuating the defects of these 
notions. Accurate measurements and the relations of such meas- 
urements have in anthropology, as elsewhere, a fixed, solid value, 
which can not be lightly passed over. And as to the orienta- 
tion of the fragment, if, as Ameghino objects, posing it like the 
corresponding part in man makes it look human, where then is 
the difference ? Could the same part of any extinct or fossil primate 
or even that of the really ancient European man be made, no matter 
how posed, in shape and size so much like that of the modern man 
that it could not be readily distinguished by anthropologists of 



346 BUREAU OP AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

experience? The new method of orientation is radically wrong 
because it utilizes as a determinative a point (the glabella) which is 
capable of acting as a fulcrum on which the axis of the skull may be 
turned at will, or according to individual view, so long as the point of 
the true summit of the skull is not defined (as is often the case) with 
unmistakable precision. The position given to the fragment by 
Ameghino, particularly with the help of the "craniorientor," makes 
of it really a monstrosity, impossible both paleontologically and 
anthropologically. The only service the new appliance has indirectly 
rendered is that it has led to the publication of the most natural 
illustration of the Buenos Aires specimen presented (pi. 55) up to 
the time this illustration appeared. 

TETRAPROTHOMO ARGENTINUS 

History and Reports 

In 1887 F. Ameghino announced the discovery, 1 in the barranca 
of Monte Hermoso, a low cliff facing the sea in the central part of the 
coast of the Province of Buenos Aires, of vestiges of " a being, more 
or less closely related to actual man, who was a direct forerunner of 
the existing humanity." These vestiges consisted of fragments of 
"tierra cocida, fogones [fire places] — some of the latter vitrified and 
having the appearance of scoria — split and burnt bones [of animals], 
and worked stones." In 1889 Professor Ameghino reached definitely 
the conclusion that such remains can not be the work of a being of 
the same species or of the same genus as the present man, but belong 
to "a precursor of man." 2 

Independently of the above, some timo in the eighties (the exact 
date is not known), an employee of the Museo de La Plata made for 
that institution at Monte Hermoso a collection of fossils. Among 
these bones was found at the museum a humanlike atlas of subaverage 
size. When this atlas was seen by Senor Moreno, at that time the 
director of the La Plata Museum, it was still partially enveloped in 
yellowish or yellowish-brown earth. 3 Soon after its discovery the 
specimen was forgotten and lay unnoticed in the collections of the 
museum for many years, until finally it was observed accidentally by 
Santiago Roth, who freed it from the "loess," and seeing that the 
specimen appeared to be a human atlas of small size transferred it 
to the anthropologic collections of the institution. There again it lay 
for several years longer without receiving any special consideration, 

1 Monte Hermoso, Buenos Aires, 1887, 10 pp. 

2 Contribution al conocimiento de los mamiferos fosiles de la Repiiblica Argentina; in Act. Acad. Nac. 
Cordoba, vi, Buenos Aires, 1889, p. 87. 

3 Ameghino (Tetraprothomo, etc., p. 174) says that the specimen was "still in a portion of the rock" but 
Sefior Moreno expressly stated to the writer that it was in "earth" which held together but was not 
solidified. Whether or not this earth was sandy can not now be definitely determined. The fact that 
later the bone was cleanly disengaged from the mass shows further that it could not have been in "rock." 
Roth speaks of the bone as having been enveloped in "loess" (in Lehmann-Nitsche, Nouvelles recherches, 
etc., p. 386). 



HedliCka] SKELETAL REMAINS OE EABLY MAN 347 

until a new discovery at Monte Hermoso attracted to it the attention 
of Ameghino. Through Lehmann-Nitsche Ameghino borrowed the 
specimen, studied it in detail, and published a description of it in 
his memoir on the Tetraprothomo, identifying the bone with that 
particular hypothetic genus of man's precursors. 

At the same time a study of the atlas was undertaken and pub- 
lished by Lehmann-Nitsche, 1 who in turn attributed it to "a Tertiary 
primate of Monte Hermoso, the Homo neogseus." 

Sometime during the early years of the present century Carlos 
Ameghino discovered in the same barranca of Monte Hermoso a 
peculiar bone, which eventually was referred to a supposed ancient 
parental form of man. It was a portion of the fossil femur of a being 
which F. Ameghino identified as a very ancient forerunner of man, 
the Tetraprothomo argentinus. 

It was this specimen which excited interest in the Monte Hermoso 
atlas and which is responsible for the establishment of the new genus 
of Tertiary (Miocene) Primates or "precursors." 

THE REPORTED FEATURES OP THE ATLAS 

"This bone," according to Ameghino, 2 "does not belong to the 
genus Homo, but on the other hand it approximates so closely to the 
atlas of man that it doubtless comes from a form which was man's 
precursor, and this could have been no other than the Tetraprothomo." 

As to the relatively considerable size of the bone, "comparisons 
have shown that other nonarboreal mammals which present a femur 
of approximately the same dimensions as the Tetraprothomo, have 
an atlas as large or even larger than the latter. It is also to be borne 
in mind that the femur of the Tetraprothomo indicates a body pro- 
portionately stouter than that of man, so that such a being had also 
a proportionately larger atlas. To this it should be added that some 
results of an examination of the bone demonstrate independently of 
the preceding consideration that it must have supported a skull 
proportionately larger than that of man, from which it is inferred 
that the atlas also must have been of proportionately greater size. 
Furthermore, if a correspondence in size is established between the 
atlas of a young chimpanzee of only 56 cm. in height, the atlas which 
I suppose to be that of Tetraprothomo — a being that according to 
the femur should have reached the stature of 1.05 to 1.10 m., and 
the atlas of a man of medium stature, it wiU readily be seen that the 
fossil atlas of Monte Hermoso corresponds perfectly with the height 
and corpulency of the Tetraprothomo argentinus. . . . 

"Of course, the possibility that the two pieces, the femur and the 
atlas, may pertain to two animals specifically and even generically 

1 Nouvelles recherches, etc., p. 386 et seq. 
a Tetraprothomo, etc., p. 174 et seq. 



348 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

distinct, can not be absolutely excluded, but this would imply the 
existence at Monte Hermoso of two 'precursors of man, which appears 
to me for the present, I shall not say impossible, but highly improb- 
able; and until further proofs appear to the contrary it seems to me 
more logical and prudent to refer the two specimens to but one form." 

As to the morphologic peculiarities of the atlas, Ameghino ex- 
presses, to start with, the opinion that the atlas is beyond doubt 
' ' not only one of a primate, but it belongs to the same group which 
includes man and the anthropomorphs." It is further seen that the 
bone belongs to the " family of Hominidx and not to that of the 
Antropomorph%dse,P The features which demonstrate that the 
specimen does not belong to Homo but to a distinct and extinct 
genus are: The contour of the vertebral canal, determined by the 
ventral curves of the anterior and posterior arches of the atlas, 
approximates in man an ovoid figure with its longer axis in the antero- 
posterior direction, while in the Tetraprothomo the figure is elliptical 
and its greater axis is transverse. "This character is fundamental 
and separates neatly the Tetraprothomo from the genus Homo. . . . 
Certain other detailed features in the shape of the aperture approxi- 
mate this bone to that of man." 

The plane for the odontoid facet is vertical, indicating a "-per- 
fectly erect position of the body." The anterior tubercle of the bone 
presents the same form and development as in man. 

As to the posterior arch, a feature which is particularly accentuated 
is the absence from the Tetraprothomo bone of the bridge covering 
the groove for the vertebral artery. "In the larger part of the mam- 
mals and in all the living Primates of the Old World, with the excep- 
tion of the anthropomorphs and man, this vertebral groove presents 
itself covered by a bony arch; in Tetraprothomo this bridge does not 
exist, in which it agrees with man and the anthropomorphs. It is 
clear that the absence of a bridge over the vertebral artery groove is 
a primitive character and, although there are examples of human 
atlases in which the groove is totally or partially covered by an arch, 
these examples do not prove the existence of this bridge in man's 
precursors but indicate the commencement in man of a tendency 
toward the formation of the bridge. . . . 

"This characteristic is of capital importance in a question of the 
relations of the distinct families of the Primates. It proves that 
man and the anthropomorphs constitute a great group or order 
(Anthropoidse) , which has no immediate relation either with the 
Lemuridse or with the catarhine or platyrhine apes, and which has 
remained isolated, evolving independently, probably since the Upper 
Eocene." 

Other very detailed features regarding the canals and grooves of 
the vertebral artery are discussed but the text is so involved that it 
is necessary to refer the reader to the original. 



hrdliCka] SKELETAL. REMAINS OF EARLY MAN 349 

As to other parts of the bone, "the medium portion of the pos- 
terior arch of the Tetraprothomo [p. 191] is much more massive than 
in man, more broad or extended from above downward, with its 
posterior surface very convex and rough, but with a distinctly 
formed tubercle. The superior border forms in the median part a 
curve which is convex upward and the inferior border shows another 
curve, convex downward, in a manner even more accentuated. In 
the human atlas the inferior border forms usually a curve concave 
upward, although there are cases in which the border is straight or 
plane, but the characteristic convex form of the Tetraproihomo is so 
rare that among the numerous human atlases that have passed 
through my hands I have not seen it up to the present, except in a 
single example, and even there not to a similar degree. It is clear, 
therefore, that it is a case of atavic reappearance of a characteristic 
which reaches back to the ancient Microbiotheriidse. and which has 
been retained in the diminutive living dideljids which constitute the 
genus Peramys. 

"In the Tetraproihomo the massive form of the median part of 
the posterior arch, the great breadth of the same in this region, and 
the great consequent extension of the rough surface which gives 
insertion to the cervical muscles, indicate that the latter were con- 
siderably stronger than they are in man, and that, therefore, the 
skull with relation to the stature was of notably larger size. In 
fact, this region of the posterior arch of the atlas of the Tetraproihomo 
is so different from that of Homo that it is permissible to suppose it 
subserved functions which have since become unnecessary." 

This lower portion of the posterior arch leads Ameghino to the 
conclusion that the Tetraprothomo possessed a special cervical liga- 
ment of which no traces are encountered in the human atlas, except 
through atavistic reappearance. This ligament does not indicate 
that the skull of this being was inclined farther forward than in man ; 
the ligament was necessary to insure the erect position of the skull 
and it could not disappear immediately after this was accomplished. 
"The great development of the cervical ligament in the Tetraprothomo 
proves that this is really the true forerunner of man ; it demonstrates 
also that the erect position was in the Tetraprothomo an acquisition 
so recent that the cervical ligament referred to has not as yet, or 
has only recently, entered on the road to retrogressive evolution" 
(p. 194). 

The lateral masses of the atlas with the articulation are, con- 
sidered as a whole, "essentially human, but with notable deviations 
which bring the generic difference of the bone considerably into 
evidence." 

The transverse processes, now defective, were very small. The 
superior articular facets are very different from those of the atlas 
of man; they are but slightly concave antero-posteriorly and the 



350 BUREAU OP AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

articular surface is shorter, broader, flatter, and less oblique. Their 
outline is not reniform but more regularly elliptical and considerably 
broader at the middle than in man, both relatively and absolutely. 
The declivity downward and inward of the facets is much less accen- 
tuated than in man — "which indicates a perfectly erect position." 

The inferior articular facets show fewer differences from the human 
atlas than the superior ones. They are relatively much less oblique 
and flatter than in man; "these are features correlated among them- 
selves and with the size and position of the skull, proving that the 
latter must have been of a proportionately larger size than in man 
and perfectly vertical on the vertical column." 

Other features of the atlas to which considerable importance is 
attached by Ameghino are the large size of the ventral parts of the 
lateral masses; greater development of these masses in size and 
weight; greater breadth of the superior articular facets, and their 
advance on the canal of the bone. All these features "indicate a 
conformation destined to support in a vertical direction and in a 
perfectly natural equilibrium, on the vertical column in erect posi- 
tion, a skull heavier and consequently proportionately more vol- 
uminous than that of a man." 

Reiteration of most of the above-mentioned points is found on 
page 205 of the Ameghino memoir. 

In apostscript to his paper on the Tetraprothomo, Ameghino informs 
the reader that "this work was already completely finished and the 
paper was ready for printing, when to-day, the 23d of September, I 
received from my esteemed colleague, Dr. Lehmann-Nitsche-, a 
leaflet from the Rev. Mus. La Plata, xiv, 286-299, without cover, 
without date, which bears the title of 'L'Atlas de Monte Hermoso.' 
Under the circumstances scientists will find it incomprehensible that 
the specimen is described at the same moment and under two dis- 
tinct names by two authors. In order to obviate incorrect interpreta- 
tion I am obliged to explain my position. 

"I have stated before * that I have asked Lehmann-Nitsche for the 
specimen, which was not believed to be distinct from the corres- 
ponding bone in present man. As soon as I saw it I recognized that 
we were in the presence of man's precursor from Monte Hermoso, of 
which, as long as 20 years ago, I predicted the discovery. And 
I have even had long verbal discussion with Messrs. Lehmann- 
Nitsche and S. Roth to show them that the atlas in question was not 
identical with that of man. Seeing the little that was made of it, I 
requested permission to speak of it in my work on the femur, to which 
M. Lehmann-Nitsche at once acceded." 

Subsequently Ameghino concludes: "But all that is of only sec- 
ondary importance. That which is truly exceedingly important, 

i Tetraprothomo, etc., p. 174. 



hkdliCka] SKELETAL REMAINS OP EARLY MAN 351 

and in which I am very happy to find myself in accord with Dr. 
Lehmann-Nitsche, is that he recognizes the existence of the precursor 
of man at Monte Hermoso, and the age of the deposit as at least 
Pliocene. The Tertiary age of the strata of Monte Hermoso having 
lately been admitted even by M. Steinmann, the existence of Tertiary 
man in Argentina becomes a definitely established fact." 

The paper to which Ameghino refers above appeared later as a 
part of Lehmann-Nitsche' s "Nouvelles recherches sur la formation 
pampeenne, etc." 1 

Lehmann-Nitsche goes also into considerable detail in studying 
the bone and compares it with 16 atlases of Indians of South America. 
The principal results of his examination are brought together on 
page 397. The "notable characteristics of the atlas of Monte Her- 
moso, which are never found in the same bone of the South American 
natives with which it was compared, follow: 

i "The entire form is remarkably small and heavy; the posterior 
arch is extraordinarily broad and its external surface elevates itself 
in the form of a rectangular ridge up to the median longitudinal line; 
the form of the superior articular facets is that of an irregular ovoid 
and rather short and broad; its longitudinal axis diverges very slightly 
backward; the inferior articular facets are large, proportionately to 
the whole vertebra." 

1 Characteristics of the bone which were only rarely met with by 
Lehmann-Nitsche in the material used for comparison were: 

"The internal border of the superior articular facets is very slightly 
outside the vertical line of the corresponding border of the inferior 
facets; and the posterior root of the transverse apophysis is notably 
more developed than the anterior." 

The author then enumerates the differences and similarities be- 
tween the Monte Hermoso atlas and those of the orang and gorilla; 
it is to be regretted that these comparisons apply, however, to only 
a single atlas of each of the anthropoids. 

Among additional points of difference between the Monte Her- 
moso atlas and that of the South American Indian, there are, accord- 
ing to Lehmann-Nitsche, characteristics of inferiority in the former 
which denote a being with a brain but slightly developed. Never- 
theless, the specimen is found "to approximate more closely the 
atlas of modern man than that of the anthropoids." 

On the basis of the morphologic and geologic considerations, 
Lehmann-Nitsche proposes to regard the ' ' Tertiary primate of Monte 
Hermoso" as a particular species of man "which certainly was very 
primitive and must have approached very closely the Pithecan- 
thropus, and names it the Homo neogaeus. 

i In P.ev. Mvs. La Plata, xiv, Buenos Aires, 1907, pp. 386-410. Some copies of the part on the atlas were 
distributed preliminarily in leaflet form, as mentioned by Ameghino. 



352 BUBEATJ OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bdll. 52 

On pages 403-407 are given a number of very detailed supple- 
mentary notes on the bone, for which the reader is referred to the 
original, and on page 408 is given a table of measurements of the 
bone with comparative data on the 16 Indian atlases and the one 
atlas each of an orang and a gorilla, with which it was contrasted. 

THE REPORTED FEATURES OF THE MONTE HERMOSO FEMUR 

The first and so far the only report on this specimen is by F. 
Ameghino. 1 

As mentioned before, the history of the find is restricted to the 
statement that "this bone was encountered by Carlos Ameghino in 
his last voyage to Monte Hermoso." 

The bone is that of the left side and its upper end is missing. The 
existing part, according to Ameghino, "measures 16 cm. in length 
but the entire bone must have measured about 19 cm. . . . 

"The agreement in conformation between this bone and the cor- 
responding one of man, is nearly perfect, although this great similarity 
does not become at once perceptible because of the enormous differ- 
ences in size. 

"The similarity of the specimen to the human femur appears 
evident in the different curves of the bone, in the femoral torsion, in 
the development of the linea aspera and its inferior bifurcation, in 
the subtriangular outline in section of the median part of the body 
of the bone, in the broadening and the anterio-posterior flattening 
of its inferior extremity, in the inversion inward of the internal 
condyle and the larger size of the same, etc." 

It would be difficult to give a correct abstract of all the mor- 
phologic and comparative details given by Ameghino in his descrip- 
tion of the bone and therefore for the less essential data the reader 
must be referred to the original. The principal items accentuated 
are as follows: 

It is assumed that the head and neck of the bone were disposed 
as in man, and that the latter formed a similarly obtuse angle with 
the body of the bone. 

The great trochanter was not of the quadrate form, as in Homo, 
but more like that of Homunculus. 

The trochanteric fossa (which receives relatively little attention) 
"presents the same vascular perforations as in the human femur, and 
as in this is prolonged backward in the form of a canal or groove, 
which is quite extended and has a concave base in the transverse 
direction." 

The minor trochanter is of large size, as in man, but shows a dif- 
ferent form and is located on the internal border of the bone. "In 

1 Notas preliminares sobre el Tetraprothomo argentinus un precursor del hombre del mioceno superior 
de Monte Hermoso; in Anal. Mus. Nac. Buenos Aires, xvi (ser. iii, t. is), 1908, pp. 108 et seq. 



hbdliCka] SKELETAL KEMAINS OF EAELY MAN 353 

this position of the minor trochanter and of the lateral depression 
that accompanies the same, the Tetraprothomo constitutes a perfect 
transition between the Homunculus and Homo. ... A conformation 
in some cases absolutely equal and in others very similar is met with 
in many other mammals, particularly in carnivores and rodents. As 
these are animals which have no parental relation with man and apes, 
and which besides are perfect quadrupeds, it is clear that the above- 
mentioned characteristic has no relation with the erect position and 
that man, as well as the anthropoid and catarhine apes and the other 
mammals in which it is present, have acquired it independently. ..." 

The posterior inter-trochanteric crest shows also an intermediary 
form between man and the Homunculus. 1 

The lower portion of the bone is intact. "The condyles are dis- 
posed very similarly to those in the human femur." The internal 
condyle shows the same characteristics as that of man, "from which 
it is deduced that in the Tetraprothomo both femurs were converged 
upward and inward, as in man, and that consequently the being had 
an entirely erect position." 

The ligamentary depressions and roughnesses again are more or less 
intermediary between those of man on one hand and the Homunculus 
on the other. The internal muscles and ligaments of the joint were 
very strongly developed. 

The external condyle is intermediary in form between that of man 
and that of the apes. "What is notable is an absolutely identical 
disposition of the ligament and tendon impressions on the dorsal sur- 
face of the external condyle in the Tetraprothomo, Homunculus, and 
Homo. . . . 

"One of the greatest peculiarities of this region of the femur of the 
Tetraprothomo is the great semilunar depression, which is deep and 
excessively rough, located forward of the superior part of the external 
condyle, in the angle which the latter forms with the posterior border 
of the external surface of the bone. This ligamentary cavity is not 
encountered as a constant feature in any of the primates known to 
me, but I have observed it in different mammals of other orders, par- 
ticularly in rodents and carnivora, and it is a constant feature of all 
the representatives of the family Felidse, in which it generally acquires 
considerable size. This cavity is produced by the formation of the 
large sesamoid bone (the lateral sesamoid of the knee) , which develops 
in the tendon of the popliteal muscle, serving on its postero-external 
surface for the insertion of fleshy fibers of the popliteal muscle, while 
on the other side it gives attachment to the strong sesamo-femoral 
ligament, which is inserted into the rough base of the cavity in 
question. 

1 This relates to the curved and totally unhuman rough line shown on pi. 65. — A. H. 
21535°— Bull. 52—12 23 



354 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

" Notwithstanding all the other human characteristics which the 
femur of Tetraprothomo shows, the presence of this large lateral ses- 
amoid would have furnished sufficient cause to doubt that the bone 
belonged to a primate, if it were not for the circumstance that, the 
same feature is at times observable in the anthropomorphs, especially 
the orang, and above all for the fact that it occurs also, though very 
rarely, in man. With the discovery of the Tetraprothomo there is now 
explained the appearance of the bone in man and the anthropo- 
morphs. It is a case in man of atavic reappearance of a character 
which was proper to his more immediate ancestors. . . . 

"In the Tetraprothomo the anterior border of the cavity for the 
sesamo-femoral ligament is prolonged upward in the form of a rough 
crest, which terminates in a supracondylar tubercle of an extraor- 
dinary development. In man this tubercle is very small or is replaced 
by a simple rugosity, but there are cases in which it acquires a devel- 
opment as considerable as in the Tetraprothomo. It is therefore a 
case, as in the preceding instance, of atavic regression. This tubercle 
serves for the insertion of the medio-superior tendon of the external 
gemellus. Now, the great development of the tubercle and the rugosi- 
ties which accompany it up to the corresponding ligamentary impres- 
sion of the external tuberosity indicate great development of this 
muscle. It has already been seen above that the gemellus internus 
was also much developed. 

"This great development of the gemelli or gastrocnemii muscles is 
exceedingly important, because the latter exercise the principal role 
in biped progression. It is for this reason that they present greater 
development in man than in any other mammal, without excluding 
the anthropomorphs. It is the great development of the gemelli and 
of the soleus which produces the enlargement of the limb known as 
'pantorillas,' which under this form and at the present time are fea- 
tures exclusively of man. It being demonstrated that the Tetra- 
prothomo possessed gemelli muscles as well developed as they are in 
man, it must therefore have possessed also real ' pantorillas ' and in 
consequence a biped walk and erect position." 

The inter-condyloid fossa "does not seem to present any differences 
from that of the human femur, either in relative size or in disposition, 
or they are, in view of the differences which the features show in man 
according to races and individual varieties, insignificant and without 
importance. . . . 

"The patellar and condylar surfaces form a figure which narrows 
from the back forward in a considerably more accentuated degree than 
in the human femur. This difference is due to the fact that in the 
Tetraprothomo the patellar surface is more narrow and that the con- 
dyles extend considerably farther backward, from which it results that 
the patello-condylar field is of greater antero-posterior than trans- 



hrdliCka] SKELETAL REMAINS OF EARLY MAN 355 

verse diameter, while in the human femur it is of greater transverse 
than anteroposterior dimension. 

"In the human femur the patellar surface is found separated from 
the condylar surface by two transverse depressions, sufficiently 
broad but of little depth; they are the 'transverse fossae/ which, 
however, do not interrupt the continuation of the ridges which 
laterally limit the patellar trochlea. . . . These transverse depres- 
sions I have not observed in any of the mammals that I have had the 
opportunity to examine, not even among the primates, with the 
exception of the anthropomorphs, and it is indubitable that they 
are related with the biped and more or less erect position. . . . These 
depressions not only separate in the Tetraprothomo the patellar field 
from the condylar planes, but they also interrupt the ridges which 
limit laterally the patellar surface . . . further proof that the 
Tetraprothomo was a biped. . . . 

"There are, however, between man and the Tetraprothomo some 
notable differences. In the femur of the latter the planes of the 
condyles are quite convex and they narrow notably backward, while 
in man they are nearly flat and in breadth nearly equal in front and 
behind, which gives to the inferior surface of the bone apparently 
a very distinct aspect. 

"It is clear that the greater flattening of the inferior plane of the 
condyles and its posterior broadening in the femur of man are the 
result of the erect position; it is, however, also evident that man did 
not acquire these characteristics suddenly but very gradually, as a 
result of a cause which acted in the same direction during a long space 
of time, and it is natural to suppose that this flattening and broadening 
of the condylar surfaces continue still in augmentation at the actual 
time. In Tetraprothomo it can be said these characteristics are in the 
beginning of their formation. . . . The femur of Spy and that of 
Ovejero occupy an intermediary position between the actual man and 
that of the Tetraprothomo in these respects, but are still nearer the 
latter. 

"The patellar trochlea is the part in which perhaps the femur of the 
Tetraprothomo is more distant from the same bone in man. It differs 
in the fact that it is farther extended from above downward, that it 
is more arched in the same direction, and is of a more symmetric 
form. The lateral ridges which limit the trochlea are more promi- 
nent and acute, characteristics which distinguish them from the 
same crests in the femur of man. . . . With this, the patellar trochlea 
of the femur of the Tetraprothomo extends farther from above down- 
ward than transversely, that is, it is of greater height than breadth, 
inversely to what succeeds in man, in whom it is notably more broad 
than high, while at the same time the external crest is stronger and 
more prominent than the internal and the superior border of the 



356 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

trochlea describes an oblique line descending gradually in an inward 
direction. As a consequence of this formation, the patellar trochlea 
of the human femur is at its internal side considerably lower than at 
its external, from which results that the patellar field appears as if 
located obliquely with reference to the longitudinal axis of the body 
of the bone. This is perhaps the greatest apparent difference between 
the femur of Homo and that of Tetraprothomo. 

"However, to this difference must not be attributed more than a 
relative value. This obliquity of the patellar trochlea is due to the 
obliquity of the femurs of man, which incline, converging, from above 
downward, and the tendon of the extensor muscle moves in the same 
direction; as the patella is enveloped in the tendon mentioned, it is 
obliged to move somewhat obliquely instead of in a perfectly vertical 
direction, and it is the continuation of this oblique movement which 
has produced in man the transverse broadening of the patellar troch- 
lea and its obliquity inward. This is a characteristic exclusively 
human, which has resulted from the biped progression in erect posi- 
tion. . . . 

"But in the Tetraprothomo the biped and erect position was a char- 
acteristic of quite recent acquisition, which as yet had not acted during 
a sufficiently long time to be able to modify the form of this femoral 
region; notwithstanding which, it can be stated that such a trans- 
formation has already commenced. . . . 

"The femur of Tetraprothomo presents 1 cm. above the trochlea 
quite a large suprapatellar fossa. . . . An equal fossa is seen in the 
femur of the Homunculus, but it is located proportionately a little 
farther above, besides which it is of smaller size and deeper. On 
another femur from the superior Eocene from Patagonia, which I 
attribute to the genus Anthropops, there exists an equal fossa but of a 
larger size and located somewhat lower. It constitutes a species of 
transition between that of Homunculus and that of Tetraprothomo, so 
that it is seen that the latter has inherited this conformation from its 
ancient predecessors of the superior Eocene. 

"The suprapatellar fossa is present also in many apes of the old 
continent ; it is, however, located not only lower than in the apes of 
the superior Eocene but also lower than in the Tetraprothomo. In the 
femur of man the suprapatellar fossa has descended still lower, until 
it has become located immediately above the superior border of the 
trochlea, but it has augmented in extension and diminished in depth. 
Furthermore, it has lost the subcircular or elliptic outline which it 
had in the ancient forms, to assume a triangular contour. Still, in 
the femur of the Man of Spy it is deeper [than in the present man] and 
its triangular contour is less well defined. . . . 

"In the conformation of this region the Tetraprothomo occupies 
evidently an intermediary position between man and the apes. 



hrdliCka] SKELETAL, REMAINS OF EARLY MAN 357 

Moreover, it is easy to perceive that in the Tetraprothomo this region 
was on the way of transformation in the direction toward the form 
characteristic of man." 

The shaft of the Tetraprothomo femur presents "all the distinct 
curves of the human femur" and "a femur which presents reunited 
the conjunction of these curves can be regarded with certainty as 
proceeding from a primate of erect position. What is above all 
surprising and worthy of reflection is that in this case also the human 
characteristics mentioned are considerably more accentuated in the 
femur of the Tetraprothomo than in that of man. ... 

' ' The region of the greatest importance is the posterior surface of 
the shaft, because it carries the linea aspera, which is one of the 
characteristics which separate the femur of man from that of all the 
rest of the mammals, including the anthropomorphs, and which stands 
in correlation with the erect position. ... 

"In the femur of the Tetraprothomo the linea aspera in its general 
form is identical with that of the human femur, differing only by its 
scarcely smaller development and some other secondary details. . . . 

"That being so, as the same organs must correspond to the same 
functions, the linea aspera of the femur of the Tetraprothomo must 
have subserved the same functions as the linea aspera of the human 
femur. In consequence, the Tetraprothomo was a biped of a perfectly 
erect position." . . . 

The nutritive foramen is situated (with a slight difference in height) 
and directed as in man. 

The popliteal space is convex in the transverse direction, instead 
of being slightly depressed or concave as in man. "This latter con- 
formation, although very rare, is also observed in the femur of 
man. . . . There appears, however, in the middle of the convexity a 
small depression from above downward, with a rough surface and 
some small vascular perforations. This depression represents the 
commencement of a process of formation of a depression much more 
considerable than that characterizing the human femur." 

The shape of the shaft at the middle is subtriangular, showing the 
relation of the bone to that of man. "In commencing the examina- 
tion of the linea aspera, I said already that this is the feature which 
gave the body of the bone in the median part of its length a trans- 
verse section, with its larger axis in the antero-posterior direction 
while in all other mammals the section in the same region shows 
always a greater axis in the transverse direction (I have already men- 
tioned the exception to this presented by some ungulates and also 
the fact that these have no value whatever in this question)." 

On the succeeding pages (152-158) Professor Ameghino gives 
a number of sections of the shaft of the Tetraprothomo and other 
femora. It seems that some of the figures are not printed strictly 



358 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

antero-posteriorly; however, the bones show but little morphologic 
relation. 

The torsion of the femur "is encountered, more or less accentuated, 
in all mammals, but reaches the highest grade in the femur of man 
and especially in that of the negro races, f 1 ] Following man in this 
feature, come the anthropomorphs, especially the gorilla, which 
confirm the supposition that the higher grade of torsion results from 
the passage of the quadruped to biped locomotion. In this respect 
it would then be interesting to be able to determine the grade of 
torsion in Tetraprothomo. Unfortunately the head and neck of the 
bone are missing, but there exists the base of the specimen, which gives 
a sufficient sustaining point for the possibility of assuming that the 
femoral torsion has been still greater than that in the actual man. . . . 
This deduction finds complete confirmation in the lateral torsion of 
the shaft of the bone, to which it appears the anatomists have given 
as yet no attention, but which nevertheless, under this point of view, 
is of still greater importance than the femoral torsion determined 
by the change of orientation, in the inverse sense, of the extrem- 
ities. [ 2 ] . . . 

"The lateral torsion of the body of the bone and the remaining 
characteristics which accompany the same, are encountered only in 
the femur of man, although not in as accentuated a form as in that. of 
the Tetraprothomo, owing to modifications which have been produced 
in relatively recent time." 

Besides the foregoing, numerous other minor features of the bone 
are described, all of which according to Ameghino point in the same 
direction — that is, to the relation of the femur to that of man — while 
at the same time the specimen preserves generic differences. The 
femora of Spy and Ovejero show a still closer morphologic relation 
with the Monte Hermoso specimen than with the femur of the pres- 
ent Homo. 

On the basis of the length of the bone the stature of the Tetrapro- 
thomo is estimated, as has already been seen, to have been not more 
than 1.05 to 1.10 m. The carriage of the body was perfectly erect 
and the body was in relation to the stature proportionately stouter 
than it is in the present man. The skull was, proportionately to the 
height of the being, of considerable size, in accord with and in rela- 
tion to the stoutness of the body; the skull was also proportionately 
larger than in man. 

As to the biologic classification of the Tetraprothomo, the being 
"can not be considered as an anthropomorph." In respect to both 
the femur and the atlas "it resembles man much more than it does 
any of the known anthropomorphs. . . . Therefore Tetraprothomo 

1 The fact is, on the contrary, that it is considerably less in the African and the Americanized negro 
than in either the whites or the Indians.— A. H. 
[ 2 Expression not very clear.] 



hrdli<5ka] SKELETAL REMAINS OF EARLY MAN 359 

is decided to be a representative of the third genus of the family 
of the Hominidse." Nevertheless, "the distance between Tetra- 
prothomo and Homo is from the morphologic and evolutionary point 
of view so considerable that it causes the presupposition of the 
possible existence of the three intermediary genera: Prothomo, 
Diproiliomo , and Triprothomo , whose characteristics I determined 
many years ago theoretically" (p. 210). 

In the last pages of Doctor Ameghino's memoir the preceding con- 
siderations form the basis of a new, complex, zoo-anthropologic 
classification, and also of a far-reaching theory of the evolution of 
mankind in and its spread from South America. 

ADDITIONAL LITERATURE 

Additional literature on the Monte Herrnoso atlas and femur is as yet 
scarce. In 1909 Lehmann-Nitsche published a brief communication 
on Homo sapiens and Homo neogsBus, 1 in which he repeats some of the 
principal characteristics of the Monte Herrnoso atlas as found by his 
examination. Those features of the bone which in his earlier 
report on the specimen (Nouvelles recherches, etc., 1907) were speci- 
fied as not having occurred in any of the other sixteen Indian atlases 
used for comparison, are now stated unqualifiedly as never occurring 
in any recent atlases, and some of these features are again said to bear 
relation to small brain development in the species. However, the 
atlas is "humanoid" and not "anthropoid." 

In the same year the Tetraprothomo femur and atlas are dealt with 
at some length by GiufMda-Kuggeri, 2 but the author restricts himself 
to a report of the cases and some secondary considerations, without 
giving any independent critical opinion. 

The same year the two finds, with others of Ameghino, are already 
unreservedly utilized by Sergi 3 in support of his theory of polyg- 
enism and serve as a base of a new classification of mankind. 

In 1910 Sergi reports 4 again on the latest finds relating to ancient 
man and his precursors in Argentina, accepts them apparently with- 
out any serious doubt, and advances again on their basis his new 
classification of the human family. The being or beings represented 
by the Tetraprothomo atlas and femur are placed among the Pro- 
anthropidse. Lehmann-Nitsche' s classification of the atlas as belong- 
ing to Homo neogseus is declared inadmissible, "because the atlas does 
not belong to man." 

i Homo sapiens und Homo neogxus aus der argent inischen Pampasformation; in Vcrhandlungen xn, 
Internationalen Amcrikanistcn-Kongresses, Wien, 1909, pp. 93-9S; also in Naturwisse-nschaftliche Wochen- 
schrift, N. f., Band vm, Jena, 1909. 

2 Giuflrida-Ruggeri, V., Un nuovo precursore dell' uomo. II " Tetraprothomo argentinus"; in Rivista 
d' Italia, fascicolo di gennaio, Roma. 1909, pp. 137-147. 

3 Sergi, G., L'apologia del mlo poligenismo; in Attt Soc. romana di antr., xx, fasc. 2, Roma, 1909, pp. 
187-195. 

4 Sergi, G., Paleontologie sud-Americaine; in Scientia, vm, Bologna, 1910, pp. xvi-4. 



360 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

In 1910 also Lehmann-Nitsche says a few additional words on the 
Monte Hermoso atlas/ without, however, adding any new facts. 
His text reads as follows: 

"From the inferior Pampean formation we know but a single small 
bone related with the human being. It is the first cervical vertebra 
or atlas, which has been discovered at Monte Hermoso. ... It 
does not present likeness with the corresponding bone of the gorilla 
and orang-outang but is similar to the atlas of the actual man, so 
that at first view it can be taken as belonging to the latter. Never- 
theless, it offers particular characteristics which are encountered only 
occasionally in the actual human genus and which always occur in 
an isolated manner, never jointly as in this case. This atlas is, 
before all, small and stout; its superior articular surfaces run in 
almost parallel directions, which proves that the bone was not obliged 
to carry a voluminous brain. The atlas of the present South Amer- 
ican natives offers greater likeness to that of Monte Hermoso than 
any other atlas of other living races; however, superior articulate 
facets of the present-day atlas always diverge notably, being the 
supports of a larger and heavier brain. It results from this that the 
specimen must be considered as proceeding from a human or huma- 
noid being, with tendency toward development into one of the actual 
human forms, especially that of some of the South American abor 
rigines. 

"The difficulty which existed in the classification of the carrier of 
this atlas whom I named Homo neogseus [man of the new world], 
with the remainder of fossil human remains and with the Pithe- 
canthropus of Java, diminishes through the discovery by Prof. v. 
Ihering, of Sao Paulo, of which he gave an account before the Seven- 
teenth International Congress of Americanists recently held at 
Buenos Aires. According to him there existed during the first half 
of the Tertiary a continent which disappeared long since, connecting 
eastern Asia with Central America. Moreover, mammals of the 
northern hemisphere which came to South America did not emigrate 
all at one time but in two distinct epochs. With this Miocene fauna 
emigrated perhaps also, towards Central America, the precursors of 
man, and in this manner the history of man may be most ancient in 
Argentina while it is most modern in North America. This removes, 
it is seen, the difficulty which existed in connecting the Homo neogseus 
with the cradle of the Pithecanthropus, but I shall not enter into con- 
clusions which, for the moment, would be too anticipatory." 

The same year the Monte Hermoso atlas and femur are also briefly 
dealt with by Friedemann. 2 This observer had seen the originals and 

1 Lehmann-Nitsche, R., El hombre fosil pampeano; in Boletin de la Oficina National de Estadistica, La 
Paz, Bolivia, vi, 1910, pp. 363-366. 

2 Friedemann, M., Vorlage eines Gipsabgusses des Schadeldaches von Diprothomo plalensis Ameghino; 
in Zeitschr. filr. Ethn., Heft 6, Berlin, 1910, pp. 934-935. 



HRDLidKA] SKELETAL REMAINS OF EARLY MAN 361 

possessed the casts of the specimens, but had evidently not subjected 
the case to a detailed study and has nothing to say on the atlas. He 
remarks, however, that certain features in the conformation of the 
lower extremity of the Monte Hermoso femur are not such as are 
presented by the primate thigh bone. "This region of the specimen 
reminds one more of the forms found among the Felidse and CanHse." 
And, "when Ameghino says that he must keep to his opinion until 
such a combination of characteristics is shown in another than a pri- 
mate femur, the case may be reversed and the proof may be demanded 
before Ameghino's conclusions are accepted, that such a joint surface 
as that in the Tetraprothomo femur can occur among the primates." 

In the discussion of Friedemann's paper v. Luschan makes only 
the following remark in relation to the femur: 1 "To speak here of 
the Tetraprothomo thigh bone appears to me, in view alone of its 
articular surface for the patella, wholly superfluous." 

Toward the end of the same year an important remark concerning 
the Tetraprothomo femur occurs also in Schwalbe. 2 In finishing his 
report on the Diprothomo, Schwalbe says : " In a following work I 
shall bring forth evidence that the intermediary member designated 
Tetraprothomo is also not retainable as a forerunner of man." Regard- 
ing the atlas, he makes only the remark (p. 216) that, among the 
remains of "fossil" Primates in South America, there is "one, the 
atlas of Monte Hermoso, 3 in the highest degree humanlike." In a 
recent letter to the writer, finally, 4 Schwalbe says that in regard to the 
Monte Hermoso atlas, he can not partake of the views of Lehmann- 
Nitsche and considers the bone purely human. 

Subsequent pages will give the results of the writer's examination 
of the two bones, atlas and femur, attributed to the Tetraprothomo 
but it will be well to precede that part of the text by a brief report 
on the barranca of Monte Hermoso by the geologist of the expedition. 

Monte Hermoso: Geologic Notes 
By Bailey Willis 

Monte Hermoso is a dune on the southern coast of Buenos Aires. 
It surmounts a short section of the Pampean terrane, which is ex- 
posed by wave erosion in a low bluff along the shore. First de- 
scribed by Darwin, it has since been visited by many geologists 
who have studied the Pampean. Its position, remote from other 
sections of similar geologic constitution, gives it peculiar interest, 
while at the same time its isolation makes direct stratigraphic cor- 

i Friedemann, M., Vorlage eines Gipsabgusses des Schadeldaches von Diprothomo platensis Ameghino; 
in Zeitschr.fiir Eihn., Heft G, Berlin, 1910, p. 938. 

2 Schwalbe, G., Studien zur Morphologie der siidamerikanischen Primatenformen; in Zeitschr. fur 
Morph. und Anthr., Band xm, Heft 2, Stuttgart, 1910, p. 225. 

s " Ein dern menschlichen aussserst ahnlicher Atlas von Monte Hermoso," etc. 

* Dated May 15, 1911. 



362 BUREAU OP AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

relation impossible. The Pampean terrane, which forms the base 
of the section, contains a notable fauna and the geologic age of the 
formation has been much discussed. General opinion places it 
among the lowest or as the lowest of the divisions of the Pampean, 
and Ameghino regards it as Miocene. The writer does not consider the 
age of the so-called Monte Hermoso formation definitely established. 
About half a kilometer southwest of the old lighthouse on Monte 
Hermoso the writer observed the following section (see pis. 57, 58) : 

Dune sand, forming a steep grass-grown slope, part of the re" 
cent dune formation that constitutes a belt (3 kilometers or 
|? J more in width along this part of the coast) ; at the base is a 
layer 15 to 40 cm. thick composed of gray sand, angular 
pieces of gray sandstone and pebbles, some fractured by man; 
marking an unconformity with the underlying formation. 
Unconformity by erosion. 

Gray sands, finely stratified, up to 1 meter exposed, forming a 
vertical face. 

Volcanic ash, in the form of hard white rock, forming a project- 
ing ledge; thickness 20 to 40 cm. 

Gray sands, strongly cross stratified, slightly indurated, like 
those above the volcanic ash; forming an undercut slope; 
thickness 1^ meters. 

Gray sand, with small white quartz pebbles and very small 
black pebbles, constituting a basal conglomerate at the bot- 
tom of the gray sands. 
Unconformity by erosion. 

Loess-loam, a yellow-brown compact earth, which is fine- 
grained like loess but lacks the columnar structure of typical 
eolian loess and is distinguished by firmness like soft pipe- 
stone; lies upon a wind-eroded surface of the underlying for- 
mation and has a pebbly structure, i. e. contains pebbles of 
loess where it fills hollows. These wind-eroded hollows and 
the filling by loess that contains wind-rolled pebbles of loess 
mark an uncomformity by erosion like those observed in the 
Barrancas del Norte, near Mar del Plata; 2\ to 3 meters. 
Unconformity by erosion. 

Secondary limestone or tosca; locally developed in a thin 
irregular plate. 

Loess-loam or loess-sandstone, a red-brown sandy earth, 
very fine-grained, very compact and without lines of stratifi- 
cation or vertical structure; 1 to 1^ meters. 

Beach. 

The features of this section are shown in plates 57 and 58 (from 
photographs). It comprises three recognized formations, which 



H 
P 



< 
H 
m 
O 

H 
H 

O 



HRDLigKA] SKELETAL REMAINS OF EAELY MAN 363 

Ameghino has named Monte Hermosean, Puelchean, and Recent, and 
which are separated by distinct unconformities. 

The Monte Hermosean formation comprises the two deposits of 
brown earth or loess-loam, which are themselves separated by a plane 
of wind erosion. The formation is regarded as Miocene by Ameghino 
and as older than any other exposure of the Pampean. 

The Puelchean consists of the stratified, slightly indurated, gray 
sands or sandstone, both above and below the volcanic ash, between 
two unconformities by erosion. It is a peculiar sandstone, marked 
by very striking cross stratification and uniformity of gray color and 
grain. The writer regards it as an eolian formation. Later in the 
season, when studying the section exposed along the Rio Colorado 
from the delta to Pichi-Mahuida, he observed a very similar sand- 
stone, which might be correlated with the Puelchean on grounds 
of lithologic identity. It is a thick widespread formation which is 
regarded as a Tertiary sandstone. The Pulechean, if the same, 
represents only a thin edge of it. 

The Recent formation, as exposed in this section, is but a part 
of the extensive deposit of dune sands, which has become grass-grown 
and so fixed, but which does not yet show any signs of erosion. In 
driving some 10 kilometers diagonally across the belt the writer 
noted a general similarity to the grass-grown dunes observed north 
of Necochea, but near Monte Hermoso the supply of sand appears to 
have been much greater. The belt is very wide and the sand hills are 
high. * 

The distinction between the Recent dune sands and the Tertiary(?) 
Puelchean is not obvious. The two are identical in constitution; 
they are both eolian and may exhibit similar structures; the Recent 
formation may be consolidated almost or quite to the firmness of the 
older one. The unconformity between them suffices to establish 
the difference in age and is unmistakable when clearly shown in 
section (pis. 57, 58). Arrowheads or hand-chipped stones associ- 
ated with the sands would mark them as recent, such objects being 
common in the belt of sand dunes which the Indians were in the habit 
of using as a line of march and cover in attacking Argentine settle- 
ments. At Monte Hermoso the dune sands and associated chipped 
stones had fallen from the upper slope onto various projecting ledges 
and chips were collected from the surfaces of the Monte Hermoso 
terrane. 

Through the courtesy of Doctor Ameghino the writer saw at 
Buenos Aires 10 pieces of burnt clay which would appear to have 
formed a layer about 10 by 15 cm. in area and 5 to 10 mm. thick, 
collected by Ameghino from the Monte Hermosean formation below 
high-tide level. As stated in describing certain observations on 
the burnt earth of the Pampean, the writer finds that clays of that 



364 BUREAU OP AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

formation may be burnt without the agency of man, and he does not 
attach any significance to the occurrence of burnt earth as an evidence 
of man's existence in the Miocene ( ?) "Monte Hermosean." 

Examination of the Skeletal Parts Attributed to the Tetraprothomo 

By AleS HedliCka 
THE MONTE HERMOSO ATLAS 

The bone comes apparently from an adult subject. 

In color it is now shiny brownish-black, but this is due to it having 
been treated with melted wax and resin. According to the museum 
preparator and others who saw the bone before it was thus treated, 
its color was yellowish or yellowish-brown, "like that of an ordinary 
earth." 

Owing to the wax and resin it can not now be seen whether or not 
the bone was mineralized, or, if mineralized., to what extent. How- 
ever, it is not heavy, and in knocking it against the teeth it gives much 
the same sound as would an atlas from a moderately old grave. 

The bone is submedium in size and rather massive, but is in 
every respect human. An extensive comparison with human and 
other mammalian atlases settles its human provenience beyond 
question. It is more or less distant morphologically from the atlases 
of all the anthropoid apes and still more so from those of the monkeys, 
while the atlases of the Carnivora and other mammals present such 
differences that a comparison becomes entirely superfluous. 

The specimen looks really smaller than it is, owing to the defective 
state of the lateral processes. It measures 3.85 cm. in greatest 
antero-posterior diameter * and was near 7 cm. in greatest 
breadth, exceeding in both dimensions five and equalling one of the 
Indian atlases from the series of 100 selected at random and used 
by the writer for comparison (pi. 59) . The smallest normal adult 
atlas in this series measures 3.5 by 6.4 cm. Macalister 2 determined 
that the female atlas averages 4.2 by 7 cm., while the smallest 
adult specimen in his collection was only 3.6 by 6.1 cm. 

The central aperture even more than the whole specimen gives the 
impression of being undersized. This is due partly to the optical 
effect of the rather stout arches and lateral masses which surround 
it, and partly to an encroachment on its lumen of the lateral masses. 
The actual measurements of the aperture, however, show that while 
submedium, it is by no means outside of the range of size variation of 

1 A cast of the atlas, donated by Professor Ameghino to the United States National Museum, while 
seemingly accurate as to form, presents in general slightly greater dimensions than the original. This is 
doubtless the fault of the artist or of the material, but the fact should be borne in mind by those who may 
desire to utilize any measurements on similar casts. All the measurements of the atlas given in this report 
were made on the original. 

2 Macalister, A., Notes on the Development and Variations of the Atlas; in Jour. Anat. and Physiol., 
xxvn, London, 1893, pp. 519-542. 




x%\ 



hrdliCka] SKELETAL REMAINS OF EARLY MAN 365 

the atlases of relatively modern Indians, for in the series of 100 of the 
latter used for comparison there were found 17 in which the greatest 
antefo-posterior and also the greatest lateral diameter of the opening 
were either equal to those of the Monte Hermoso atlas or had one 
diameter equal and the other smaller, and there were two in which both 
the dimensions were smaller. (See pi. 60.) A female Calchaqui atlas 
(No. 7-C in the La Plata Museum) approximates also very closely 
the Monte Hermoso specimen in this respect. 

In shape the central aperture approximates a metal ax and is 
entirely humanlike, differing considerably from that of any other 
primate. (See pis. 60, 63.) The anterior portion is somewhat narrow, 
owing to marked development of the lateral masses, and the posterior 
arch is rather shallow, but both of these characters only distinguish the 
bone still more fully from that of the anthropoid and other apes, in 
which the anterior part of the central aperture is as a rule broad, 
while the arch of the posterior portion in most cases is deeper than the 
average in the human species, and especially deeper than that in the 
Monte Hermoso specimen. On the other hand a considerable number 
of the Indian atlases compared show precisely the same type of 
aperture. Absolutely exact duplication can scarcely be expected, of 
course, in a feature liable to so much individual variation, but the 
same is true of the aperture of any other human atlas, or of any of the 
more important parts of the bone. 

The anterior arch is entirely human in form. The tubercle extends 
vertically over nearly the whole extent of the arch in the median 
line, as in modern man; in most of the apes it is confined to the lower 
part of the arch. From the anterior tubercle to each lateral mass 
the anterior surface of the arch is flat and more distally it is percepti- 
bly concave, as in most human atlases; a similar condition was 
found in a baboon (C. porcarius), but in the anthropoid and most 
other apes the anterior surface of the lateral parts of the arch near 
the tubercle is decidedly convex and only seldom is there a sign of 
the more distal depression. 

The maximum height of the anterior arch, which corresponds to 
its middle portion, is 11 mm. and its thickness in the median line is 
6 mm., both dimensions met with in many modern human atlases. 

The facet for the odontoid is large and slightly higher than broad 
(13 by 11.5 mm.), as in many human atlases with higher anterior 
arches, but is radically different from what obtains in all other 
Primates that could be compared, for in these the facet is of greater 
breadth than height, besides differing more or less in shape from that 
in man and also from that in the Monte Hermoso specimen. The 
axis of the facet in the Monte Hermoso atlas is vertical, as it is in 
most cases in man, while in the apes it is generally more or less 
inclined in such manner that its lowest portion is more anterior 



366 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

than the highest part. Finally, underneath the facet, the inferior 
border of the arch in the lower Primates projects downward as a 
well-marked point, of which in the Monte Hermoso atlas there is 
only a trace; in the Indian atlases there is either a similar trace or a 
total absence of this point. 

The tubercle for the transverse ligament is fairly well represented, 
being, as in a large proportion of modern human atlases, more devel- 
oped on the right, less so on the left side; and the same is true of the 
vertical groove on each side between the odontoid facet and this 
tubercle. The groove here referred to is less differentiated in or 
absent from the Primates lower than man. 

The pit just back of each transverse ligament tubercle (the ento- 
glenoid fossa of Macalister) is of submedium development, especially 
on the right, but similar conditions are often observed in man. In 
the anthropoid and other apes there is no pit at all, or it is small and 
shallow. 

The oblique ridge ascending from below the fossa just mentioned 
to the hinder part of the median border of each upper articular facet, 
which is present as a rule in modern human atlases but is wanting or 
only feebly represented in lower Primates, is well-defined on both 
sides in the Monte Hermoso specimen. 

The posterior arch is stout but this feature to the same or even 
greater degree is quite common in modern man; in most of the 
anthropoids and monkeys, on the other hand, this arch is more slender 
than the average in man. 

The posterior arch is also high in its middle third, its maximum 
expanse measuring 12 mm. This is a less common, though not 
strictly a very rare, feature among human atlases, being equaled 
or exceeded by 8 of the 100 atlases used for comparison in the United 
States National Museum and by 7 out of 30 South American Indian 
atlases examined at the La Plata Museum. Among the anthro- 
poid and other apes, however, the posterior arch is usually of only 
moderate height and where it is relatively more expanded in the 
vertical direction, as in some of the monkeys and rarely in an excep- 
tionally powerful anthropoid ape, its height is quite uniform from 
side to side and is not concentrated, so to say, in the middle portion, 
as in the Monte Hermoso and other human atlases (pi. 61). 

The proximal parts of the posterior arch in the Monte Hermoso 
atlas are flattened above and below, this feature being characteristic 
of all human atlases. An approximation to this is occasionally seen 
in the gorilla, but in all the lower anthropoids and apes the superior 
and inferior flattening is absent and the oblique sagittal diameter of 
the arch at these points is smaller than the vertical. 

The curve of the posterior arch is slightly less than the average in 
human atlases, but equals or approximates that of a fair proportion 



•dliCka] SKELETAL REMAINS OF EARLY MAN 367 

of modern specimens. It is decidedly smaller than that of the anthro- 
poid apes, but in monkeys the arch is again more flat. 

The middle part of the ventral surface of the posterior arch in the 
Monte Hermoso atlas is so inclined that it diverges slightly from the 
vertical from below upward, just as in most modern human atlases. 
But in all the apes and monkeys examined this plane diverges in 
exactly the other direction; that is, from above downward. 

The posterior tubercle in the Monte Hermoso specimen is rather 
diffuse and is located in vertical direction about the middle of the 
arch, as in most cases in man. In most of the apes, on the other 
hand, this tubercle is most prominent at the lower border of the arch, 
while farther above the bone surface is more or less flat or marked 
by a depression. 

The atlases of anthropoid apes and of monkeys, with rare excep- 
tions in the gorilla, present a bony septum which passes from below 
the posterior extremity of the upper articular facet to the posterior 
arch, completing a canal for the vertebral artery and the suboccipital 
nerve. A similar condition is still met with, on one or both sides, 
in about 7.5 per cent of human atlases (Macalister) . In the Monte 
Hermoso specimen there is no trace of this bony septum, a fact which 
demonstrates in one more particular the unprimitive character of 
the bone. 

The superior and also the inferior border of the posterior arch in all 
the apes approximate more or less the straight line, while in the 
Monte Hermoso atlas, as in many other human specimens, both 
borders are concave on the sides and convex in the middle. 

The lateral masses can be described simply as stout, but they were 
equaled or exceeded in all dimensions in more than 20 per cent of the 
Indian atlases used for comparison. They are more noticeable in 
this regard because they narrow somewhat the anterior half of the 
central aperture. But their characteristics are the same as in man. 
They are more nearly of the same height anteriorly and posteriorly 
than in the anthropoid apes and monkeys, in which the posterior 
portion is distinctly higher than the anterior, and their vertical axes 
in particular show, as they do in most Indian atlases, a more mod- 
erate inclination downward than in any of the lower Primates. 

The superior articular facets are not abnormal or other than 
modern human in either their concavity, shape, or size, but the axis 
of the right facet, owing mainly to its relative shortness, is less con- 
vergent forward than usual. On the left side the facet was nearer 
the more common form, being somewhat more prolonged forward. 

It is the lack of such a prolongation which causes the straightness 
of the axis of the right facet. Such straightness is reached but sel- 
dom in the Indian atlas, yet it occurs; and an examination of the 
atlases of other Primates shows that it is not an approximation to 



368 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

these, for the facets in all are even more oblique than in man, but 
rather a modification in the other direction — more advanced than 
zoomorphic. In this connection it should be recalled that the axes 
of the condylar facets differ considerably in direction in human atlases, 
as was shown by Macalister, 1 and may differ much even on the two 
sides in the same bone. Their axes prolonged forward gave Macalister 
angles between 32° and 63°, while those of the Monte Hermoso atlas 
show 40° or slightly more. The individual variation in the size and 
form of these facets is in fact so large that no two exactly alike 
can be found in even a considerable collection (pi. 62). 

The foramina for the vertebral artery were apparently good- 
sized and rounded, as in man. There is a possibility that the anterior 
wall of the canal was partially deficient on one or both sides, as 
occurs occasionally in modern human atlases. 

The inferior articular facets, like the superior ones, lie somewhat 
straight antero-posteriorly, but this is of no special import, falling 
within the range of normal variation of this feature in man. They 
are large, do not taper forward, and are but moderately inclined 
toward the central aperture, all of these features agreeing with 
the atlas in the Indian and in modern man in general; but in the 
anthropoid and lower apes these facets are relatively smaller, taper 
forward, and show a decidedly greater inclination (pi. 63). 

Conclusions. — The Monte Hermoso atlas offers certain peculiari- 
ties, especially a general stoutness, combined with less than an 
average-sized central aperture and a slightly submedian size of 
the whole bone. Besides this, its articular facets, particularly 
the upper one on the right side, are less than ordinarily convergent, 
and the posterior boundary of the neural canal forms more a section 
of an ellipse than that of a circle. These are the only respects in which 
the bone may be said to vary from the average atlas of the Indian. 
It may be asked then are these features, none of which surpasses or 
even reaches the limit of individual variation in the modern human 
atlas, sufficient, singly or collectively, to exclude the specimen 
from the range of present man and relegate it either to a far-away 
forerunner of the human being, or to a distinct early species of Ameri- 
can aborigines ? 

To the above it can be answered only that, if so, then any one 
finding an atlas or any other bone that would stand in a few charac- 
teristics somewhere near the limit of its variation, particularly if the 
circumstances of the find should be obscure or point to possible 
antiquity (conditions by no means rare), would be justified in basing 
on such evidence the existence of other precursors or other species oi 
man. Such procedure would be disastrous to anthropology. 

i Macalister, A., Notes on the Development and Variations of the Atlas; in Jour. A rial, and Physiol., xx\u, 
London, 1893, p. 534. 



BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 



BULLETIN 52 PLATE 64 

2» *.*•>. 



$£* 




MONTE HERMOSO FEMUR 

From photographs of the original. 



hedliCka] SKELETAL REMAINS OF EARLY MAN 369 

The results of a critical examination and comparison of the bone 
failed, as seen in the preceding paragraphs, to sustain the former 
strained interpretations. There can not be even a shade of question 
as to the human provenience of the atlas, while the possibility of its 
belonging to an earlier species of man is opposed by the facts that 
such species is otherwise still a mere hypothesis, that there is nothing 
on hand on which to base the new species except a single imperfect 
bone of secondary anthropologic importance and of wide individual 
variation, that all of the peculiarities of this bone fall well within the 
range of such variation in modern human atlases, and that none of 
its features are more primitive than those of the atlases of Indians of 
comparatively recent times. 

The normal range of variation in the more important characteris- 
tics of any part of the human skeleton extends, according to extensive 
observations of the writer, to from 50 to 250 individuals, adult 
and of one sex. If it can ever be shown that not one out of at least 
100 adult male atlases of the Indians who occupied the region of 
which Monte Hermoso is a part, is the same as or closely similar 
to the "fossil" specimen, and if other atlases the same as or closely 
similar to this, but of thoroughly established geologic antiquity, 
are found in the same region, then another variety of man might 
perhaps be established on this basis. It would still remain to be 
shown, however, by skulls and other parts of the skeleton, that the 
peculiarities of the atlas are not those of a mere local group but 
those of a distinct species of humanity. 

The writer's opinion, based alone on the structural characteristics 
of the Monte Hermoso atlas, is that it is a bone from a short, but 
by no means dwarf, and probably thickset, relatively modern, man. 
It is probable that the bone was accompanied by a rather massive 
skull, which is not a rare occurrence even in females among the 
Indians. 

THE TETRAPROTHOMO FEMUR, FROM MONTE HERMOSO 

The specimen is a left adult femur, complete in the lower extremity 
and the shaft, but with the upper end missing to a point just below 
the greater trochanter (pi. 64 and fig. 51). 

The bone is nearly black in color, owing in this instance to fossili- 
zation, with a shiny surface. It appears fully petrified. It has the 
same appearance as the fossil teeth and bones of animals found by 
the writer in the Monte Hermoso barranca or seen by him in collec- 
tions from that locality. 

Morphologically, the specimen at first sight impresses one as 
bearing but little generic resemblance to the human thigh bone, 
but as approximating much more closely the femora of lower mam- 
21535°— Bull. 52—12 24 



370 



BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 



[bull. 52 



mals. Yet, on closer view it is seen to present several rather singular 
features, which seem to bring it into some relation with the human 

thigh bone. The principal of 
these features are a relatively 
long median condyle; a supra- 
trochlear fossa; a torsion of the 
shaft; a trace of backward bend 
of the shaft; and a very percepti- 
ble bend of the same, above its 
middle, outward. These few fea- 
tures are mainly responsible for 
the identification of the bone as 
that of a precursor of man and 
they demand therefore careful 
consideration. 

Detailed study and compari- 
son. — The shaft of the Monte 
Hermoso femur is rather plano- 
convex in shape, its postero- 
medial surface being flat. The 
lateral edge is sharper than the 
medial, owing to its correspond- 
ence with the downward exten- 
sion of the gluteal ridge and lower 
down with the linea aspera. 

The shaft is very slightly curved 
from before backward,, but the 
curve is diffused over the lower 





Fig. 51. The Monte Hermoso femur. (Photographs from original.) 

half of the bone, while a bend backward above the middle, charac- 
teristic in general of human and to a less degree of other primate 



hedliCka] SKELETAL, REMAINS OF EAELY MAN 371 

femora, is entirely wanting. On comparison a similar presence of 
the lower and defect of the upper curvature is seen to be common 
to the femora of many mammals, among which are a number of the 
Carnivora. 

Besides the slight curve backward, the shaft presents above its 
middle a rather well-marked bend outward. This feature occurs in 
man but not regularly or exclusively so. It was also present and that 
to very much the same degree as in the Tetraprothomo, in the femur 
of an adolescent Bolivian bear in the Museo Nacional, Buenos Aires, 
and is found well marked in other bears, in the American Canidse, and 
in fossil Felidse. 

The Monte Hermoso femur presents in its upper half a fairly well 
defined torsion outward. In this feature it may be said to approxi- 
mate the femur of man more than that of the other Primates or of the 
modern cats, but it comes quite as near also to the modern Canidse 
and to some of the fossil Carnivora, in which torsion is decidedly 
greater than in the apes or the modern Felidse. 

The stout median edge of the shaft shows a prominent secondary 
ridge running parallel with but more posterior to the border, and 
extending over slightly more than the middle third of the bone. 
A trace of such a ridge was found in a few of the Carnivora and in 
a baboon, possibly in an alouata, but none in other Primates or man. 

From the great trochanter to the plantaris tuberosity below, the 
Tetraprothomo femur presents an antero-lateral surface, which is met 
with only occasionally and in a moderate degree in the upper fourth 
to two-fifths of the shaft in man and in some of the apes. 1 More 
closely related forms are seen in the hyena, jaguar, ocelot, jaguarondi, 
and gray wolf. 

Postero-laterally the upper part of the bone presents remnants of a 
sharp but stout-based high ridge, which occupies the place of and is 
analogous to the occasional third trochanter in man but shows differ- 
ent form. This elevation is in direct continuation with the gluteal 
crest and the latter forms an inseparable constituent of the linea 
aspera. The upper portion of the anterior border of the third tro- 
chanter is somewhat overhanging, much as in the jaguar femur used 
for comparisons (25097, U. S. National Museum). 

Laterally, below the third trochanter, there is in the Tetraprothomo 
no trace of the belly which forms, particularly in Indian femora, a 
prominent feature of the usual flattening of the bone at this pohxt ; 
the shaft is slightly flattened in this region as in some recent and 
fossil Carnivora and other mammals, but bears little resemblance to 
the human type. 

i In one of the alouatas examined (A . sen., No. 4785, U. S. National Museum), a narrow and almost wholly- 
lateral surface extends from below the great trochanter over about five-sixths of the shaft. 



372 BUEEATJ OF AMERICAN" ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

The linea aspera descends straight from the third trochanter and 
the gluteal ridge as a marked postero-external border to the middle 
(in length) of the shaft, where it bifurcates, one well-developed ridge 
extending downward and slightly forward along the lateral aspect of 
the shaft to the pronounced plantaris tuberosity, while the other 
descends near the median line of the posterior surface, and at about 
the junction of the lower with the middle third of the bone divides 
into the medial and lateral epicondylic lines, of which the former is 
the more noticeable. The situation of the upper two-thirds of the 
linea aspera is much more lateral than in man or in any of the apes 
but is practically identical with that in many of the carnivores. 

The nutritive foramen in the Tetraprothomo is situated 8.9 cm. 
above the lowest part of the external condyle, apparently near the 
middle of the bone. It is located close to the median lip of the linea 
aspera. In the femur of the Bolivian bear at the Museo Nacional the 
foramen is 8.5 cm. above the external condyle, the total "bicondylar" 
length of the bone being 17.4 cm., hence in very much the same 
position as in Tetraprothomo, but is placed more toward the middle of 
the posterior surface of the bone. The latter is also true of the jaguar 
and ocelot; in a jaguarondi and a coyote the canal was found placed 
both in height and laterally much as in the femur from Monte Her- 
moso. In man there are in most cases two canals for the nutrient 
arteries, one situated near the middle and the other, more constant, 
near the junction of the middle and superior thirds of the shaft, the 
upper one often in the linea aspera, the lower one in or near its medial 
lip. In most of the anthropoid apes and monkeys the canal appears 
to be situated near the upper third of the bone, in or near the median 
lip of the linea aspera and about the middle of the posterior aspect of 
the bone. 

Below, a short distance (14 mm.) above the upper termination of 
the trochlea, the shaft presents a distinct shallow patellar fossa. This 
fossa measures about 9 mm. in length, 8 mm. in breadth, and 1.5 mm. 
in maximum depth. A very similar fossa was found by the writer in a 
chimpanzee, a baboon (C. porcarius), and a cinnamon bear. In a 
striped hyena a marked depression exists immediately above the 
trochlea. In a Canis mexicanus (No. 1384, U. S. National Museum) a 
shallow fossa exists 12 mm. above the trochlea, hence in about the 
same position as in the Tetraprothomo, and there is an additional large 
depression just above the trochlea. No fossa exists in the gorilla, orang, 
or gibbon. In a few American monkeys a slight hollow is found just 
above the trochlea. In man there is immediately above or very near 
the trochlea a more or less marked depressed surface, with some larger 
vascular foramina, but this surface is never clearly denned and never 
constitutes a distinct fossa as seen in the Tetraprothomo. 



hrdliCka] SKELETAL, REMAINS OE EARLY MAN 373 

The uppermost portion of the bone shows features very much 
at variance with corresponding features of the human species. The 
anterior surface is less flat than in man. Nothing remains of the 
great trochanter except the base. This basal part is entirely unlike 
the same part in man and apes and is directly continuous with the 
base of the large and adjacent prominence corresponding to the third 
trochanter. Allied conditions are encountered in the jaguar, wolf, 
and other Carnivora. The greater trochanter must have been different 
in form from that in man and most Primates. Its base was weakest 
antero-laterally, where in man and the anthropoid apes, particularly 
the gorilla and orang, it is of pronounced strength. This weakness 
exists in connection with an extension far forward of the trochan- 
teric fossa, which is a zoomorphic characteristic found in the monkeys, 
but more especially in the carnivores. On the other hand, the part 
of the great trochanter lying postero-laterally to the digital fossa and 
the groove leading from it to the posterior surface of the bone, is 
relatively stouter in the Tetraprothomo femur than in man or the 
Primates, owing to its strengthening by the third trochanter. 

Beginning in the median line at the base of the great trochanter, 
about where in man we find the upper end of the anterior inter- 
trochanteric line, and thence proceeding downward and outward 
to the lateral border, just below that part of this border which is 
contributory to the third trochanter, there is a low but distinctive 
crest, a result of ligamentous or muscular attachment. This ridge 
is not to be confounded with a vertical muscular impression found 
on some mammal femora and rarely even on those of man. It is wholly 
distinctive and runs in an opposite direction from the anterior 
oblique or spiral line in man (which seems to be lost with the missing 
upper part of the bone), and corresponds probably to the interval 
between the crural and the vastus externus muscles. It was not 
found by the writer in any of the Primates, but was faintly indi- 
cated in the Bolivian bear, partially represented in the cinnamon 
bear and the jaguar, well marked in the striped hyena and the gray 
wolf, and is fairly distinct in the Indian dog from California. 

Posteriorly the upper extremity of the Monte Hermoso femur 
shows features so unlike both human and primate that no close 
approximation of the forms is even suggested. 

The minor trochanter lies much more mediad than in man and 
the gorilla, though slightly or no more so than in other apes; the 
closest analogies are found, however, in the Carnivora. (PL 65.) 

The minor trochanter in the Tetraproihomo is also situated very 
high; with the bone in the bicondylar position the superior part of 
it is only 2 mm. lower than the base of the trochanteric fossa. This 
position is paralleled in a hyena and a coyote and approximated in 



374 BUREAU OP AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

other Carnivora, as well as in a cebus, but in none of the other Primates 
compared. 

The form of the minor trochanter is that of a stout, dull, slightly 
intercepted ridge and not that of an isolated tuberosity, as in man and 
in all the Primates that were examined. In this respect it differs, even 
though to a less extent, from the modern and most of the ancient 
Carnivora whose femora were used for comparison. The lower 
part of the minor trochanter ridge extends downward and out- 
ward to the middle of the posterior surface of the bone, where it 
fades out. There is no trace of the posterior part of the spiral line, 
which is usually well-marked in the primates as well as in modern 
and in most fossil Carnivora, but it may be represented by the pro- 
longation downward of the minor trochanter ridge just described. 

The most striking peculiarity of this upper part of the posterior 
surface of the bone, however, consists in the presence of a well- 
defined, elevated semicircular crest (pi. 65), curving from the lower 
part of the minor trochanter downward, outward, and then upward 
to the upper portion of the rear part of the great trochanter, con- 
necting with the lateral boundary of the groove which leads to the 
trochanteric fossa. This line forms the lower boundary of a sur- 
face which approximates circular form, is moderately concave from 
side to side and occupies fully the space between the trochanters. 
All these are features which find absolutely no analogy in and can 
have no generic relation to man or any of the Primates. They imply 
differing or at least much more developed muscle (quadratus f emoris ?) 
and differing function. But they occur in the Carnivora. The 
semicircular crest is represented typically in the ocelot and in less 
regular forms in the cinnamon bear, striped hyena, jaguar, gray 
wolf, Canis mexicanus, and the old California dog. It is also found, 
as will be shown later, in some of the fossil Carnivora. This char- 
acter alone suffices to take the Monte Hermoso femur definitely out 
of the primate range. 

The lower extremity of the Tetraprothomo bone is morphologically 
even farther removed than the upper, if possible, from the corre- 
sponding part of human and even ape femora. It is that of an 
ancient cat or a related carnivore and not that of a primate. (Pis. 
66-68.) 

It presents a high and narrow trochlea, narrow, high and deep 
condyles, and narrow, deep intercondylic notch. The separation 
inferiorly of the trochlea and the condyles is much more distinct than 
in man or any of the apes. The axis of the trochlea is more nearly 
vertical than in man or other Primates. The lateral ridges binding the 
trochlea are much more elevated and better defined than in any human 
femora or those of anthropoid apes, and they are much more nearly 
parallel than the lateral trochlear boundaries in man and most apes. 
The lateral ridge is higher, a trace less sharp, and extends farther up 




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hedliCka] SKELETAL REMAINS OF EARLY MAN" 375 

than the" median one ; and the upper boundary of the trochlear sur- 
face is less clearly marked than its other borders. All this points 
steadily away from the Primates and equally as steadily toward the 
carnivores, especially the cats. 

The trochlea in the TetraprotTiomo ranges in width from 15 mm. to 

18 mm., and when the femur stands about vertical it reaches in height 

19 mm. from the horizontal plane. Owing to the height, shallowness, 
and prolongation inferiorly of the border of the trochlea, it is impos- 
sible that the mammal from which this femur came walked with the 
hind limbs erect or even approximately so. The hind limbs were 
necessarily kept partially flexed, as general in cats, dogs, and other 
carnivores. 

Finally the ligamental and muscular facets and elevations differ 
greatly, particularly along the lateral border of the bone, from those 
in the human and also in the ape species. 

The plantaris tuberosity is very pronounced, much more so than 
in any primate, but very much as in the hyena and some of the feline 
species. Its outer boundary forms a part of the lateral border of the 
femur (of the lateral epicondylic line) . 

There is in the lateral epicondyle a very pronounced gastrocnemic 
notch (for the lateral head of the gastrocnemius), and almost vertically 
below this notch are two adjacent depressions, the lower for the 
external lateral ligament, the upper possibly for a slip of the biceps. 
Finally, below them is a well-marked popliteal groove. 

On the median condyle is seen a marked depression for the adductor 
and another even larger for the medial head of the gastrocnemius. 
All these muscles were apparently strongly developed, in adaptation 
to jumping or running. As to the two facets on the lateral condyle 
besides those of the gastrocnemius and popliteus, they are met with 
in many of the carnivores but in none of the Primates examined. The 
remaining impressions agree in general with those in the Carnivora, 
particularly the Felidse. 

When the TetraprotTiomo femur stands on a horizontal surface in 
the bicondylar position, the lower part of the shaft is seen to ascend 
less inclined outward than in man or in any of the anthropoid or other 
apes, except the baboon. This important difference is due to the rela- 
tively longer internal condyle in man and the Primates. On the other 
hand, the axis of the shaft of the Monte ITermoso specimen is exactly 
the same in regard to lateral inclination as in the hyena, puma, 
jaguar, ocelot, wolf, and coyote, and much like that in other Canidse. 

Viewing the Monte Hermoso bone from below, the specimen is seen 
to resemble the femora of many of the Carnivora much more than those 
of any of the Primates, except in the relative antero-posterior dimen- 
sion of the median condyle, which, in comparison with that of the lat- 
eral one, is somewhat greater than in any of the specimens with which 



376 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bdll. 52 

it is contrasted except in the bear; the exact curves of the trochlear 
ridges, particularly of the external one, also approximate most closely 
to those of the bear. 

The thickness of the shaft at the lowest portion of the diaphysis is 
relatively to its breadth much greater in the Tetraproihomo than in 
either man or any other primate, being precisely like that observed 
in many feline species. 

Finally, the popliteal surface in the Monte Hermoso femur is per- 
ceptibly convex from side to side. In man and the majority of apes, 
it is slightly concave or flat, in the gibbon and some monkeys slightly 
convex, in the dogs slightly concave to slightly convex, in the cats 
flat to convex (ocelot, Hoplophoneus) , as in the Tetraproihomo. 

Conclusions. — The femur of the Tetraproihomo bears only a slight 
resemblance to that of man or the anthropoid apes, and but little 
greater to that of the lower monkeys. It presents no feature which 
would make obligatory or even possible its inclusion in the Primate 
class, but on the other hand it shows many features which approx- 
imate it to a distant family of mammals. 

The class of mammals with which the characteristics of the femur 
connect it most closely are the carnivores, and among these especially 
the cats. All the evidence leads to the deduction that the Monte 
Hermoso femur is a femur of some extinct moderate-sized felid, 
though possibly a member of a subfamily other than that of the 
felines. It is probably useless to look for an exactly analogous form 
among the present South American or other modern cats, and this 
statement may apply even to the North American fossil Felidae, but 
that does not affect its claim as a member of the same stem. 

That Carnivora have not been found hitherto among the Monte 
Hermoso fauna does not prove their absence from the formation, for 
as yet this is known but very imperfectly; moreover, while looking over 
the Monte Hermoso fossils in the Museo de la Plata with Professor 
Roth, the writer came across the metatarsal of a large-sized carnivore, 
so that even the claim of the absence of this class of mammals from 
the Monte Hermosean deposit is no longer tenable. 

Comparison with fossil Carnivora. — In order to make the identifica- 
tion of the Monte Hermoso femur still more definite, the writer 
examined, with the kind assistance of Mr. J. W. Gidley and Dr. W. D. 
Matthew, the femora of fossil dogs and cats present in the paleonto- 
logic collections of the United States National Museum and the 
American Museum of Natural History. The comparison was carried 
out especially with the Felidae Hoplophoneus (Oligocene) , Nimraous 
(Oligocene), Dinictis (Oligocene), and Pogonodon (Miocene) ; with the 
Canidse Daphsenus (Oligocene), Mlurodon (Miocene), Enhydrocyon 
(Miocene), and Mesocyon (Oligocene); and with the procyonid 
Phlaocyon (Miocene). All of these are North American forms, no 
South American fossils being; available in the two institutions. 



hrdliCka] SKELETAL REMAINS OF EARLY MAN 377 

The substance of the results of the comparison can be stated in a 
few words : There follows in general a strengthening of the deductions 
resulting from the comparison of the Tetraprothomo specimen with 
recent forms. The Monte Hermoso femur is that of a carnivore. 
As might be expected, it presents complete identity with none of the 
fossil forms examined, but it possesses strong group relations with 
them all. As to family, it affiliates most closely with the Felidae. 

Entering more fully into detail, the comparisons showed that 
as to shape the shaft in all the fossil Felidae that were examined 
and also in the PJdaocyon resembles very closely that of the Tetrapro- 
thomo femur, while in the Canidse it presents perceptible differences. 

The backward bend of the shaft, in general slight and diffuse, is 
quite marked in the Pogonodon, where it extends from the lower 
two-thirds of the shaft. 

The outward curvature of the shaft is practically absent from the 
dogs, is present to a slight degree in the PJdaocyon, and is general in 
the cats; in the Pogonodon it is of very much the same grade as in 
the femur from Monte Hermoso. 

Torsion of the shaft was found to be much like that in the Tetra- 
prothomo femur or only slightly less in all the Felidae, but it was 
decidedly less in the Canidse and also in the Procyonidse. 

The linea aspera is of the same or closely related type as that in 
the Tetraprothomo, in the cats, and also in the Daphssnus, while in the 
rest of the dogs and in the Phlaocyon it is distinct, running more 
mediad and being in general nearer the type shown by the Primates. 

The gluteal ridge forms in all cases, as in the Tetraprothomo, a con- 
stituent and indistinguishable part of the linea aspera. 

The third trochanter is present in all the fossil cats. It is usually 
an oblong and well-marked tuberosity forming a constituent part of 
the lateral ridge which, lower down, becomes the linea aspera, very 
much as in the Tetraprothomo. In the dogs, except the Daphsenus, 
in which these features are much as in the cats, the third trochanter 
approximates more a distinct tuberosity, tending toward isolation 
from below. In the Phlaocyon the features are again much as in the 
Monte Hermoso femur. In nearly all these bones the superior part 
of the anterior border of the third trochanter is somewhat overhanging-, 
as in the Tetraprothomo specimen. 

As to height, the minor trochanter is situated in all the fossil 
Carnivora except the Phlaocyon (in which it is somewhat lower) 
much as in the Monte Hermoso femur, and most of the specimens 
bear also a similarity to the Tetraprothomo bone in the very median 
situation of the tuberosity, the only exceptions being the Nimraous 
and Mlurodon, in both of which the trochanter is somewhat less 
nearly medial, and the Hoplophoneus, in which it is even more 
nearly medial than in the Tetraprothomo. As to the form of the 
minor trochanter, in none of the specimens compared is this quite 



378 BUREAU OP AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

asridgelike as in the bone from Monte Hermoso; yet in all the Felidse 
and also in the Enhydrocyon and PMaocyon it exists as a tuberosity 
arising from a ridge. In the rest of the dogs it is merely a pro- 
nounced tuberosity. 

The anterior oblique line passing from the middle of the upper- 
most portion of the shaft to beneath the third trochanter, was not 
found in any of the fossil femora with the exception of the Enhydro- 
cyon, in which there are traces of the same. 

In all the dogs the posterior portion of the spiral line is entirely 
distinct and runs separate from the minor trochanter, proceeding 
downward to form the linea aspera. In the PMaocyon it extends to 
the side of the minor trochanter and from this downward, as in the 
dogs. In the cats the upper portion of the spiral line is less distinct 
than in the dogs and tapers out without reaching the linea aspera; 
besides this there exists in the Felidse a more or less marked ridge pro- 
ceeding downward and outward from the inferior part of the minor 
trochanter itself, as in the Tetraprothomo. 

The semicircular crest extending from the minor to the major 
trochanter and forming one of the most characteristic features of the 
Monte Hermoso femur, is present but situated high in the Nimraous; 
in the Dinictis it is well-marked but slightly less deep than in the 
Monte Hermoso femur; in the Hoplophoneus well-marked and 
nearly as in the Tetraprothomo; in the Pogonodon very much as in 
the Tetraprothomo. In the Daphsenus and in the Mesocyon it is 
well represented but runs more nearly transversely, and there are 
only traces of it in the other dogs and the PMaocyon. 

The antero-lateral surface, so well defined in the Monte Hermoso 
specimen, is seen in very much the same form in all the Felidse, and 
also in the Enhydrocyon and PMaocyon, but in the remaining dogs 
it is not well or not at all differentiated. 

As to the secondary ridge which runs along the median border of 
the Tetraprothomo femur, traces only of this are seen in the Nimraous 
and Hoplophoneus , the Dinictis being doubtful. 

In the cats and the PMaocyon the flatness of the anterior surface 
of the upper portion of the femur is slightly to moderately greater 
than in the Tetraprothomo and moderately to decidedly greater in the 
dogs. 

The more or less marked flattening of the shaft below the third 
trochanter exists in all the fossils examined. (See measurements, 
p. 382.) 

In the shape of the base of the great trochanter, and in the situation 
as well as the shape of the digital fossa, the femora of Nimraous, 
Mlurodon, and Daphsenus approximate closely to the Tetraprothomo, 
the others being more distant. 

The patellar fossa is absent from all the fossil Carnivora examined, 
except in the Mlurodon, in which it is low in position and shallow, 



hrdliCka] SKELETAL REMAINS OF EARLY MAN 379 

and in the Enhydrocyon, in which it is both in situation and form 
exactly as in the Tetraprothomo. A femur of Arctoiherium possesses 
also a very much similar patellar fossa. 

In the principal features of its lower extremity the Monte Hermoso 
femur shows itself again typical of the carnivore and is again approxi- 
mated most closely by the fossil cats, as it is by the modern Felidse. 
The resemblance to the fossil femora, however, is even greater than to 
the modern, because several of the ancestral species present a decid- 
edly longer (antero-posteriorly) median condyle. However, the mor- 
phologic relations of the bones extend to every important feature of 
the lower extremity. The fossil forms nearest in these particulars to 
the Tetraprothomo are the Nimraous, Pogonodon, and HopJophoneus, 
then the Dinictis and Mesocyon, PMaocyon, and the other dogs. The 
lateral ridge of the trochlea is higher, slightly less sharp, and reaches 
farther up than the median one, in the Nimraous, Dinictis, and 
Pogonodon, than in the Monte Hermoso specimen. The plantaris 
tuberosity is well marked in the fossil cats, particularly the Eoplopho- 
neus, but in the Daphsenus and the Enliydrocyon it especially resem- 
bles that in the Tetraprothomo. The lateral gastrocnemic notch in 
all the fossil cats is exactly like that in the Tetraprothomo, and in 
the other species is more or less closely related to that in the Argen- 
tine bone. In none of the fossils is the facet for the lateral ligament 
situated quite as high as in the Monte Hermoso specimen, but it 
approximates that location in the HopJophoneus, Pogonodon, and 
Daphsenus. 

The axis of the Tetraprothomo femur, standing on the two condyles, 
is paralleled exactly by that of the Pogonodon femur and very 
nearly so by the femora of the other cats as well as by that of the 
Daphsenus. In the Pogonodon the likeness extends to all the mod- 
ifications of the axis. 

In its inferior aspect the Tetraprothomo femur approximates more 
closely the fossil than the modern species and specially so the cats, 
owing to the greater length in the cats of the median condyle, but 
it also resembles closely the Enhydrocyon, Mesocyon, and Phlaocyon. 

The thickness of the shaft at the lower portion of the diaphysis in 
all the fossil cats is very much like that in the Tetraprothomo; in the 
other fossils the thickness is somewhat less. (See measurements.) 

The posterior surface of the lowest portion of the diaphysis (popli- 
teal space) is moderately convex from side to side, as in the Monte 
Hermoso femur, in that of the Nimraous, Pogonodon, and Hoplo- 
phoneus, but in none of the other fossils. 

Conclusions. — All the above details, combined with those derived 
from living forms, demonstrate that the Monte Hermoso bone can not 
possibly be other than that of a carnivore and that, on the whole, it 
approximates more closely the femur of the fossil as well as of the 



380 



BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 



[bull. 52 



modern Felidse than it does any other bone. These considerations 
justify the classification of the Monte Hermoso femur, at least provi- 
sionally, with this family. 

In order to complete the study and comparisons of the Monte 
Hermoso specimen, the writer took a series of measurements, which 
are presented in the tables that follow. The figures only confirm and 
accentuate the visually noted differences between the Tetraproihomo 
femur and the femora of the Primates and its affiliations with the 
Carnivora, more especially the cats. The table of indexes is particu- 
larly worth perusal, for it shows in concentrated form the enormous 
differences between the bone under consideration and the corre- 
sponding bone of the Primate, and its close approximation to the 
corresponding bone in cats, in such important features as the relative 
proportions of the lower part of the diaphysis and those of the entire 
lower extremity. 

Measurements of the Monte Hermoso femur and of femora of man and apes 





Tetra- 

pro- 

thomo 


Man, 
white 


Go- 
rilla 


Chim- 
pan- 
zee 


Orang 


Gib- 
bon 


Cyno- 
cepha- 
lus 
por- 
carius 


Alo- 
uata 
seni- 
culus 

(a) 


Alo- 
uata 
seni- 
culus 
(6) 


Cebus 
bypol. 


Diameters of subtrochanteric 






















flattening: 






















Maximum 


2.1 


2.7 


2.9 


2.85 


2.9 


1.2 


1.9 


1.25 


1.1 


0.9 


Minimum 


1.55 


3.2 


2.4 


2.45 


1.95 


.95 


1.45 


.95 


.9 


.75 




73.8 


83.7 


82.8 


86.0 


67.2 


79.2 


76.3 


76.0 


SI. 8 


83. S 


Diameter of lower end of shaft 






















just above gastrocnemius at- 






















tachments: 






















Breadth, maximum 


3.1 
2.25 


6.2 
3.9 


5.7 
2.4 


4.8 
2.55 


5.5 
2.7 


2.0 
.9 


3.2 
1.55 


2.15 
1.0 


1.85 
.9 


1.6 


Thickness, minimum 


.95 


Index 


72.6 


62.9 


42.1 


63.1 


49.1 


45.0 


48. 4 


46.5 


48.6 


59.4 


Diameter lateral of lower ex- 








tremity (1), maximum 


3.80 


7.8 


6.3 


6.1 


7.0 


2.7 


3.75 


2.7 


2.35 


2.0 


Diameter anteroposterior of 






















lower extremity, maximum 


3.80 


5.9 


4.9 


4.55 


4.9 


2.0 


3.2 


1.8 


1.8 


1.65 


Breadth-depth index of lower 






















extremity 


100. 00 


75.6 


77.8 


74.6 


70.0 


74.I 


85.3 


66.7 


76.6 


82.5 


Diameter anteroposterior of 


















inner condyle, maximum 


3.8 


6.2 


5.1 


4.8 


5.7 


2.2 


3.3 


2.0 


1.85 


1.8 


Diameter anteroposterior of 






















outer condyle, maximum 


3.4 


5.95 


4.2 


4.3 


4.5 


2.05 


3.1 


1.9 


1.65 


1.65 


Percental relation of length of 






















inner to that of outer condyle. . 


111.8 


104.2 


121.4 


111.6 


126.7 


107.4 


106.5 


105.3 


112.1 


109.1 



HRDLiCka] SKELETAL. REMAINS OF EARLY MAN 381 

Measurements of the Monte Hermoso femur and of the femora of some modern Carnivora 



Tetra- 

pro- 

thomo 



Young 

Boliv- 
ian 

bear,3 
left 

femur 



Jaguars (2), 

adult, left 

femur 



Pumas (2), 

adult, left 

femur 



Ocelot 



Hyena 
striata 



Length, bicondylar, about 

Length, bicondylar, to tip of minor 
trochanter, about : 

Diameters of shaft at middle: 

Maximum 

Minimum 

Circumference at middle 

Diameters of subtrochanteric flatten- 
ing: 

Maximum 

Minimum 

Platymeric index 

Diameter of lower end of shaft just 
above gastrocnemius attachments: 

Breadth, maximum 

Thickness, minimum 

Index 

Diameter lateral of lower extremity, 1 
maximum 

Diameter antero-posterior of lower 
extremity, 2 maximum 

Breadth-depth index of lower ex- 
tremity 

Diameter antero-posterior of inner 
condyle, maximum 

Diameter antero-posterior of outer 
condyle, maximum 

Percental relation of length of inner 
to that of outer condyle 

Distance of nutritive foramen from 
lowest position on outer condyle. . . . 



cm. 

17.7 



1.85 
1.45 
5.35 



2.1 
1.55 
73.8 



3.1 
2.25 
72.6 

3.80 

3.80 

100.0 
3.8 
3.4 

111.8 
8.9 



1.45 
1.3 



1.85 

1.3 

70. S 



2.1 

1.8 

116.7 

8.5 



2.25 
1.85 



2.85 
2.05 
71.9 



4.9 

4.75 

96.9 

4.85 

4.7 

103. 2 



cm. 
23.9 



2.45 

1.9 

6.9 



2.9 

2.05 
70.7 



4.1 
3.0 

73.2 

5.0 
4.80 

96.0 
4.8 
4.9 

97.9 



27.0* 

2.3 

2.0 



2.75 
2.0 
72.7 



5.4 
5.6 

103.7 
5.2 
5.15 

101.0 



cm. 
24.7 

21.3 

1.8 

1.75 

4.55 



2.2 

1.85 
84.1 



3.1 

2.2 
71.0 

4.3 

4.2 

97.7 

4.3 

4.25 

101.2 



cm. 

16.8 

14.5 

1.45 
1.15 
4.2 



1.75 
1.2 

68.6 



2.2 

1.8 

81.8 

3.15 

3.0 

95.2 

3.0 

3.0 

100.0 

8.3 



cm. 
20. < 



1.9 
1.5 
5.5 



2.3 

1.6 
69.6 



3.3 

2.35 

71.2 

4.05 
4.1 

101.2 
4.15 
4.05 

102.5 



i Rod of compass lying on both borders of trochlea. 

s Anterior branch of compass lying on'both borders of trochlea. 

8 Epiphyses detached, adolescent. 



382 BUREAU OF AMERICAN 

Measurements of the Monte Hermoso femur and 



ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

of some fossil femora of Carnivora 





Tetra- 

pro- 

thomo 


Nim- 
raous 

(Fel.) 


Di- 
nic- 
tis 

(Fel.) 


Ho- 
plo- 
pho- 
neus 
(U.S. 
N.M.) 
(Fel.) 


Ho- 
plo- 
pho- 
neus 
(A.M.) 

(Fel.) 


Pogo- 
no- 
don 

(Fel.) 


M\n- 
rodon 

(Can.) 


Da- 
phse- 
nus 

(Can.) 


Enhy- 
dro- 
cyon 

(Can.) 


Meso- 
eyon 

(Can.) 


Phlao- 
cyon 

(Proc.) 


Diameters of subtro- 
























chanteric flattening: 
























Maximum 


«.l 


2.9 


2.55 


(?) 


2.75 


3.1 


2.3 


(?) 


1.85 


(?) 


0.9 


Minimum 


1.55 


1.75 


1.7 


(?) 


1.8 


2.2 


1.55 


(?) 


1.35 


(?) 


0.65 


Platymeric index 


73.8 


60.3 


66.7 




64.5 


71.0 


67.4 


71.0 


73.0 




72.2 


Diameter of lower 
























end of shaft just above 
























gastrocnemius attach- 
























ments: 
























Breadth, maximum 


3.1 


3.6 


3.7 


3.4 


3.8 


4.9 


3.0 


2.7 


2.3 


2.2 


1.3 


Thickness, mini- 
























mum 


2.25 

72.6 


2.8 
77.8 


2.4 
64.9 


2.45 

72.1 


2.8 
73.7 


3.6 

73.5 


1.9 
63.3 


2.2 
81.5 


1.4 
60.9 


1.65 
75.0 


0.9 


Index 


69.2 


Diameter lateral of 




lower extremity,max- 
























imum 


3.8 


5.0 


4.6 


4.25 


5.0 


6.2 


4.4 


3.75 


(?) 


3.15 


1.75 


Diameter anteroposte- 




rior of lower extrem- 
























ity, maximum 


3.8 


4.9 


4.1 


3.9 


4.6 


5.7 


4.05 


3.85 


(?) 


2.85 


1.85 


Length-breadth index 
























of lower extremity 


100.0 


98.0 


89.1 


91.8 


92.0 


91.9 


92.0 


97.4 




90.6 


94.6 


Diameter anteroposte- 
























rior of inner condyle, 
























maximum 


3.8 


4.75 


4.0 


3.9 


4.7 


5.5 


4.1 


3.95 


(?). 


3.0 


1.85 


Diameter anteroposte- 




rior of outer condyle, 
























maximum 


3.4 


4.9 


4.2 


3.7 


4.4 


5.75 


4.0 


3.7 


(?) 


2.85 


1.7 


Percental relation of 




length of inner to that 
























of outer condyle 


111.8 


96.9 


95.2 


105.4 


106.8 


95.6 


102.5 


106.8 




105.3 


108.8 



hrdlic'ka] SKELETAL. REMAINS OE EARLY MAN 

Comparison of the principal indices of the Tetraprothomo specimen and other femora 



383 



Platy- 
meric 
index 1 



Breadth- 
thickness 
index of 
lower 
end of 
diaphysis s 



Length- 
breadth 
index of 
lower ex- 
tremity 3 



Relation in 
length of 
medial to 
lateral con- 
dyle (lat- 
eral con- 
dyle=100) 



Man '. 

Anthropoid apes 

Monkeys 

Tetraprothomo 

Ancient North American Felidse. 
Modern South American Felidse . 
Ancient North American Canidee 
Modern North American Canidae 

Ursus Americamis 

Hyena striata 



79.3 
73.8 
65.6 
73.6 
70.5 
83.8 
60.5 
72.7 



62.9 
47.3 
50:7 
72.6 
72.4 
75.3 
70.2 
79.4 
60.3 



75.6 
74.1 
77.8 

100.0 
92.6 
97.9 
93.3 

114.2 
97.3 

101.2 



104.2 
116.8 
108.2 
111.8 
100.0 
100.7 
104.9 
104.9 
125.7 
106.2 



1 Diameter antero-posterior minimum of subtrochanteric flattening x 100 and -s- by the diameter lateral 
maximum taken at the same height. 

2 Diameter antero-posterior of lower end of the diaphysis, just above the gastrocnemices insertions 
x 100 and -~ by the diameter lateral taken at the same level. 

3 Diameter antero-posterior maximum of the condyles x 100 and -f- by the diameter lateral maximum; 
measurements taken as indicated in footnote of table on p. 381. 

4 Average of 25 femora of whites, of both sexes. 

I 

Notes on identification oj Monte Hermoso femur, oy J. W. Gidley. — 
The cast of the Tetraprothomo femur was also submitted for compari- 
son to Mr. J. W. Gidley, custodian of fossil mammals, U. S. National 
Museum, who kindly furnished the following report : "A careful com- 
parison of the cast with numerous examples of both living and fossil 
mammals seems to show no characters in common with any of the 
Primates that are not also common to some or all of the carnivores. 
The proximal end, although broken, shows some especially charac- 
teristic features unlike those of any Primates. The trochanteric 
fossa is depressed to near the level of the lesser trochanter, the lesser 
trochanter is shifted to the extreme inner border of the posterior face, 
and the posterior area in this region is broadened and flattened. 
These features suggest a decided resemblance to many of the dogs, 
especially Urocyon and Vulpes. The distal end, however, in its more 
broadened patellar groove and general aspect is more cat-like in 
character, suggesting Felis onca, although the inner condyle is rela- 
tively longer [antero-posteriorly] than in any of the living species. 
In this respect the South American femur more nearly resembles 
the more primitive cats of the Hoplophoneus type. Thus, while it 
does not seem possible with the material at hand to determine defi- 
nitely the particular group to which it may belong, the characters 
presented in this femur point undoubtedly to a carnivore rather than 
to a primate relationship." 



384 x BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

Final Remarks on the Monte Hermoso Specimens 

The preceding pages show that the identification of the Monte 
Hermoso atlas and femur as representing a human precursor, of 
whatsoever age, is in no way sustained. 

In the first place the two specimens present a family difference and 
can not be considered together, the atlas being human, the femur 
carnivore. 

As to the atlas, the geologic evidence of the find is entirely unsatis- 
factory, while the bone is not only thoroughly human but its charac- 
teristics are in no instance beyond the range of individual variation 
of the Indian atlas. Its identification as belonging to another species 
of man rests on the unwarranted assumptions of its antiquity and of 
the existence of such a species of man. It falls among the class of ill- 
starred specimens which have been dragged into the service of other- 
wise unsupported notions relating to the dawn of human history, 
only to be subsequently dropped of necessity into obscurity as having 
no bearing on the subject. Its extraction is problematical, but even 
if found in quite intimate relation with the real Monte Hermosean 
loess, it is not necessarily old. It may well have been derived from 
the dune above the Monte Hermoso barranca, which, as shown 
before, contains numerous traces of the modern native of the coast, 
and which fall from the crumbling edge above the ledges into 
pockets of the lower ancient formation. 

As to the femur, it must be relegated to some ancient branch of the 
cat family or other related carnivore not as yet represented in col- 
lections elsewhere, for the discovery of which due credit should be 
given the most indefatigable and successful of South American col- 
lectors, Carlos Ameghino. 



VIII. GENERAL CONCLUSIONS 

The final conclusions reached as the result of the researches 
recorded in the preceding pages regarding early man in South 
America, may be thus briefly summarized: 

A conscientious, unbiased study of all the available facts has shown 
that the whole structure erected in support of the theory of geologically 
ancient man on that continent rests on very imperfect and incorrectly 
interpreted data and in many instances on false premises, and as a 
consequence of these weaknesses must completely collapse when 
subjected to searching criticism. 

The main defects of the testimony thought to establish the pres- 
ence of various representatives of early man and his precursors in 
South America are: (1) Imperfect geologic determinations, especially 
with regard to the immediate conditions under which the finds were 
made; (2) imperfect consideration of the circumstances relating to 
the human remains, particularly as to possibilities of their artificial 
or accidental introduction into older terranes, and as to the value of 
their association from the standpoint of zoopaleontology; (3) the 
attributing of undue weight to the organic and inorganic alterations 
exhibited by the human bones; and (4) morphologic consideration 
of the human bones by those who were not expert anthropologists, 
who at times were misled in the important matter of placing and 
orienting the specimens and who accepted mere individual variations 
or features due to artificial deformation as normal and specifically 
distinctive characters. 

As to the antiquity of the various archeologic remains from Argen- 
tina attributed to early man, all those to which particular importance 
has been attached have been found without tenable claim to great 
age, while others, mostly single objects, without exception fall into 
the category of the doubtful. 

As to the many broken, striated, grooved, and perforated animal 
bones, the writers have not been convinced that these are in any case 
necessarily the work of geologically ancient man. In those instances 
in which the originals were examined, the markings observed were 
either clearly recognized as due to gnawing rodents or to other non- 
human agencies or as of doubtful origin. 

The conclusions of the writers with regard to the evidence thus 
far furnished are that it fails to establish the claim that in South 
21535°— Bull. 52—12 25 385 



386 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

America there have been brought forth thus'far tangible traces of 
either geologically ancient man himself or of any precursors of the 
human race. 

This should not be taken as a categorical denial of the existence 
of early man in South America, however improbable such a presence 
may now appear; but the position is maintained, and should be 
maintained, it seems, by all students, that the final acceptance of the 
evidence on this subject can not be justified until there shall have 
accumulated a mass of strictly scientific observations requisite in 
kind and volume to establish a proposition of so great importance. 



IX. LIST OF PUBLICATIONS 

RELATING TO THE SKELETAL REMAINS OF EARLY MAN AND HIS 
PRECURSORS IN SOUTH AMERICA * 

(See also pages 51-53) 



Ameghino, F. Ensayos para servir de base a un estudio de la formacion pampeana. 
(Serie d'articles publiee dans le journal La Aspiracion, de Mercedes, d'aout 1875 
jusqu'a Janvier 1876.) 

Notas sobre algunos fosiles nuevos de la formacion pampeana, Mercedes, 1875. 

Etude sur 1'age geologique des ossements humains rapportes par Francois 

Seguin, de la Republique Argentine, et conserves au Museum d'Histoire naturelle 
de Paris. (Not published. Quoted in his La antigiiedad, etc., n, p. 421.) 

Noticias sobre antigiiedades indias de la Banda Oriental, Mercedes, 1877, p. 6. 

■ El hombre fosil argentino, La Prensa, 28 de marzo 1877. 

(Also in Catalogue special de la section anthropologique et paleontologique de la 
Republique Argentine a 1'Exposition de Paris, 1878.) 

L'homme prehistorique dans le bassin de la Plata. (Compte-rendu Congres 

international des sciences anthropologique, Paris, 1878, pp. 341-350.) 

La plus haute antiquite de l'homme dans le Nouveau-Monde. (Compte-rendu 

Congres international des Americanistes, 3 me session, n, Bruxelles, 1879, pp. 
198-250.) 

L'homme prehistorique dans la Plata. (Revue d'Anthropqlogie, 2 me ser., n, 

Paris, 1879, pp. 210-249.) 

■ La antigiiedad del hombre en El Plata, 2 vols., Paris-Buenos Aires, 1880-81. 

Escursiones geologicas y paleontologicas en la provincia de Buenos Aires. 



(Boletin de la Academia Nacional de Ciencias en Cordoba, vi, Buenos Aires, 1884, 
pp. 168-195.) 
■ Informe sobre el Museo Antropologico y Paleontologico de la Universidad 

Nacional de Cordoba durante el ailo 1885. (Ibid., vm, 1885, pp. 347-360.) 
Monte Hermoso. Article published originally in La Nacion of March 10, 1887. 

(Boletin de la Academia Nacional de Ciencias, Buenos Aires, 1887, pp. 5-6, 10.) 

Lista de las especies de mamfferos fosiles del mioceno superior de Monte Her- 
moso, hasta ahora conocidas, Buenos Aires, 1888, p. 4. 

Contribucion al conocimiento de los mamiferos fosiles de la Republica Argen- 
tina. (Actas de la Academia Nacional, Cordoba, vi, Buenos Aires, 1889, pp. 
45-99.) 

Sinopsis geologico-paleontologica. (In Segundo Censo de la Republica 

Argentina, mayo 10 de 1895, 1. 1, pp. 146-149.) 

Paleontologia argentina. (Pub. de la Universidad de la Plata, No. 2, Oct., 

1904, La Plata, 1904, pp. 76-79. ) 

Les formations sedimentaires du cretace superieur et du tertiaire de Patagonie 

(Anales del Museo Nacional de Buenos Aires, xv (ser. iii, t. vm), 1906, pp. 
416-450.) 

1 Arranged alphabetically by authors, with the publications of each in chronologic order. 

387 



388 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

Ameghino, F. Notas preliminares sobre el Tetraprothomo argentinus, un precursor del 
hombre del Mioceno superior de Monte Hermoso. (Ibid., xvi (ser. iii, t. ix), 
1908, pp. 107-242.) 

Le Diprothomo platensis. (Ibid., xix (ser. iii, t. xn), 1909, pp. 107-209.) 

Geologia, paleogeografia, paleontologia, antropologia de Republica Argentina. 

(Estudio publicado en el Niimero Extraordinario de La Nacion, del 25 de Mayo 
de 1910, Buenos Aires; separate pp. 1-25.) 

Descubrimiento de dos esqueletos humanos fosiles en el pampeano inferior del 

Moro. (Separate, Congreso cientifico internacional americano, Buenos Aires, 10 
a 25 de julio de 1910, pp. 1-6.) 

Descubrimiento de un esqueleto humano fosil en el pampeano superior del 

Arroyo Siasgo. (Ibid., 1910, pp. 1-6.) 

■ Sur l'orientation de la calotte du Diprothomo. (Anales del Museo Nacional de 

Buenos Aires, xx (ser. iii, t. xin), 1910, pp. 319-327.) 
La industria de la piedra quebrada en el mioceno superior de Monte Hermoso. 

(Congreso cientifico internacional americano, Buenos Aires, 1910, pp. 1-5.) 
Une nouvelle industrie lithique: L'industrie de la pierre f endue dans le Ter- 

tiare de la region littorale du sud de Mar del Plata. (Anales del Museo Nacional. 

de Buenos Aires, xx (ser. iii, t. xin), 1911, pp. 189-204.) 

L'age des formations sedimentaires tertiaires de l'Argentine en relation avec 

l'antiquite del'homme. (Ibid., xxn (ser. iii, t. xv), 1*911, pp. 45-75.) 

La calotte du Dipirolhomo d'apres l'orientation frontoglabellaire. (Ibid., 

pp. 1-9.) 

L'age des formations sedimentaires tertiaires de 1'Argentine. (Ibid., pp. 



169-179.) 

(See Gervais, H.) 
Babor, J. Paleontologie cloveka. (Vestnik Klubu Pfirodovedeckeho, v Prostejove 

(Moravia), xiv, 1911.) 
Blake, C. C. On Human Remains from a Bone Cave in Brazil. (Journal of the 

Anthropological Society of London, n, 1864, pp. cclxv-cclxvii.) 
Botjle, M. Discussion and Reviews. (Compte-rendu Congr. int. d'anthr. et d'arch. 

prehist., xn sess., Paris, 1900, p. 148; and l'Anthropologie, xxn, No. 1, Paris, 

1911, pp. 68-71.) 
Burmeister, German. 1 Lista de los mamiferos fosiles del terreno diluviano (en 

Argentina). (Anales del Museo Publico de Buenos Aires, i, Buenos Aires, 1864- 

1869: pp. 121-122 (brief reference to Lund's finds in Brazil; no fossil human bones 

as yet from Argentina); p. 298: El hombre fosil argentino (refers to Seguin's find; 

reproduced in Ameghino, La antiguedad, etc., ii, 374-375.) 

Sur les cranes, les moeurs et l'industrie des anciens Indiens de la Plata. 

(Compte-rendu Congr. int. d'anthr. et d'arch. prehist., 1872, Bruxelles, 1873, 
pp. 342-351.) 

Die Ureinwohner der La Plata Staaten. (Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesell- 

schaft fur Anthropologic, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte, xvn, April, 1875, 
pp. 2-4.) 

Los caballos fosiles de la Pampa argentina; also under German title, Die 

fossilen Pferde der Pampasformation — Buenos Aires, 1875. 

Description physique de la Republique Argentine, tome n, Buenos Aires, 1876, 

p. 216; tome in, Buenos Aires, 1879, pp. 41-42. 

Descripcion fisica de la Republica Argentina. (Anales del Museo Publico de 

Buenos Aires, iii, 1879, p. 41.) 

i Spanish form; in a number of publications the name appears in the German form, Hermann,, 



LIST OF PUBLICATIONS 389 

Burmeister, German. Bemerkungen in Bezug auf die Pampas-formation. (Ver- 
handlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft flir Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urge- 
schichte, xvi, Berlin, 1884, pp. 246-247.) 

Lista de los mamiferos fosiles del terreno diluviano. (Anales del Museo Publico 

de Buenos Aires, i, 1864-69, p. 298.) See also, Ameghino, F., La antigiiedad, etc., 
pp. 374-377; and Lehmann-Nitsche, R., Nouvelles recherches, etc. (Revista del 
Museo de La Plata, xiv, Buenos Aires, 1907, pp. 209-213.) 

Buschan, G. Die tertiaren Primaten und der fosile Mensch von Siidamerika. (Das 

Ausland, lxv, 1892, pp. 398-700; also, Naturwissenschaftliche Wochenschrift, 

vni, 1893, pp. 1^.) 
Das Alter des Menschen in Amerika. (Die Umschau, xiii, 1909, pp. 949-956; 

also, Zentralblatt fiir Anthropologie, xiv, Braunschweig, 1909, pp. 368-71.) 
Combes, P., Fils. Le Diprothomme. (Cosmos, Paris, 25th Sept., 1909 (n. s., No. 

1287), pp. 344-46.) 
Desor, E. Homme des alluvions anciennes de l'Ameriquedu Sud. (In Mortillet's 

Materiaux pour l'histoire de l'homme, etc., 2 e Annee, Paris, 1866, p. 262.) 
Friedemann, M. Vorlage eines Gipsabgusses des Schadeldaches von Diprothomo 

platensis Ameghino. (Zeitschrift fiir Ethnologie, 1910, Heft 6, pp. 934-35.) 
Gervais, H., et F. Ameghino. Les mammiferes fossiles de l'Amerique du Sud, 

Paris and Buenos Aires, 1880. 
Gervais, P. Zoologie et paleontologie generates. Premiere serie. Paris, 1867-69. 

Debris humains recueillis dans la Confederation Argentine avec des ossements 

d'animaux appartenant a des especes perdues. (Journal de Zoologie, n, Paris, 
1873, pp. 231-34.) 

Giuffrida-Ruggeri, V. Die Entdeckungen Florentino Ameghinos und der Ur- 
sprung des Menschen. (Globus, Bd. xciv, Braunschweig, 1908, pp. 21-26.) 

— Un nuovo precursore dell' uomo. II " Tetraprothomo argentinus." (Rivista 

d'ltalia, fascicolo di gennaio, Roma, 1909, pp. 137-47.) 

Hansen, Soren. Lagoa Santa Racen. En anthropologisk Undersogelse af Jordfundne 
Menneskele\Tiinger fra brasilianske Huler. Med et Tillaeg om det jordfundne 
Menneske fra Pontimelo, Rio de Arrecifes, La Plata. (En Samling af Afhand- 
linger, e Museo Lundii, i, 5, KjSbenhavn, 1888, pp. 1-37.) 

Ihering, H. von. El hombre prehistorico del Brasil. (Historia, i, Buenos Aires, 
1903, pp. 161-172.) 

Kobelt, W. Ameghinos Forschungen in den argentinischen Pampas. (Globus, Bd. 
lix, no. 9, Braunschweig, 1891, pp. 132-136.) 

Kolken, A. Die Vorwelt und ihre Entwickelungsgeschichte, Leipzig, 1893. (Dis- 
cusses Roth's discoveries.) 

Kollmann, J. Schiideln von Lagoa Santa. (Zeitschrift fiir Ethnologie, xvi, Berlin, 
1884, pp. 194-99.) 

Hohes Alter der Menschenrassen. (Ibid., pp. 200-05.) 

Lacerda, A. de. Documents pour servir a l'histoire de l'homme fossile du Br6sil. 
(Memoires de la Societe d'Anthropologie de Paris, 2 me ser., n, Paris, 1875, pp. 
517-42.) 

Lacerda, Filho, and Rodriguez Peixoto. Contribuicoes para o estudo anthro- 
pologic© das racas indigenas do Brazil. (Archivos do Museu Nacional, Rio de 
Janeiro, i, 1876, pp. 47-76.) 

Lacerda, J. B. de. O homem dos Sambaquis. (Ibid., vi, 1885, pp. 175-203.) 

Lehmann-Nitsche, R. Ueber den fossilen Menschen der Pampaformation. (Corres- 
pondenz-Blatt der deutschen Gesellschaft fiir Anthropologie, Ethnologie und 
Urgeschichte, xxxi, Miinchen, 1900, pp. 107-08. See also Virchow, pp. 108-09.) 

Centralblatt fiir Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte, v, Jena, 1900, 

pp. 112-13, 138-41 (Reviews). 



390 BUREAU OP AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

Lehmann-Nitsche, R. L'homme fossile de la formation pampeenne. (Compte-rendu 
Congr. int. d'anthr. et d'arch. prehist., xn session, Paris, 1900, pp. 143-48.) 

In collaboration with C. Burckhardt, A. Doering, J. Fruh, H. v. Ihering, 

H. Leboucq, R. Martin, S. Roth, W. B. Scott, G. Steinmann, and F. Zirkel — 
Nouvelles recherches sur la formation pampeenne et l'homme fossile de la 
Republique Argentine. (Revista del Museo de la La Plata, xiv, Buenos Aires, 
1907, pp. 143-488.) 

Homo sapiens und Homo neogseus aus der Argentinischen Pampasformation. 

(Verh. xvi, Int. Amerikanisten-Kongresses, Wien, 1909, pp. 93-98; also in Na- 
turwissenschaftliche Wochenschrift, N. P., Bd. vin, Jena, 1909.) 

El hombre fosil pampeano. (Boletin Oficina Nacional Estadistica, La Paz, 



Bolivia, vi, 1910, pp. 363-366.) 
Lista, R. Sur les debris humains fossiles signales dans la Republique Argentine. 

(Journal de Zoologie, vi, Paris, 1877, pp. 153-57.) 
Lovisato, D . Di alcune armi e utensili dei Fueghini, e degli antichi Patagoni. (Atti 

della r. Accademij^Iei Lincei, Classe di scienze morali, etc., memorie xi, Roma, 

1883, pp. 194-202.) 
Lund, P. W. Letter of Aug. 20, 1840, to C. C. Rafn. (Referred to in Berlingske 

Tidende, Feb. 12, 1841; in Aarsberetning fra det Kgl. nord. Oldskriftselskab for 

1840, p. 5; in Neues Jahrbuch fur Mineralogie, Stuttgart, 1841, pp. 502, 606; 

in Nouvelles Annales des Voyages, 1841, D., vi, p. 116; in Breve till C. C. Ram, 

udg. af B. Grondahl, Kjobenhavn, 1S80, p. 247; and in Liitken, Chr. Fr., Indle- 

dende Bemaerkninger, etc. En Sanding af Afhandlinger e Museo Lundii, i, 

Kjobenhaven, 1888.) 
Blik paa Brasiliens Dyreverden, etc. (Kgl. danske Videnskabernes Selskabs 

Skrifter, 4 Raekke, ix, Kjobenhavn, 1842, pp. 195-96.) 

Carta escripta da Lagda Santa (Minas Geraes) ao Sr. 1° Secretario do Insti- 
tute . (Revista trimensal de Historia e Geographia, Rio de Janeiro, iv, 1842, pp. 
80-87.) 

Letter of Jan. 12, 1842, to Secretary of Institute de Historia e Geographia, Rio 

de Janeiro. (Referred to in Kollner Zeitung, Sept. 9, 1842; American Journal of 
Science, xliv, New Haven, 1843, p. 277; Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, 
xxxvi, 1844, pp. 38-41; Froriep's Neue Notizen, xxix, 1844, p. 247; L'Institut, 
x, 1842, p. 356; Neues Jahrbuch fur Mineralogie, Stuttgart, 1843, p. 118; Pro- 
ceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, n, 1844-45, Phila., 
1846, pp. 11-13.) 

Carta do Dr. Lund, escripta da Lagoa Santa (Minas Geraes a 21 de Abril de 

1844. (Revista trimensal de Historia e Geographia, Rio de Janeiro, vi, 1844, 
pp. 326-34.) 

Letter of Mar. 28, 1844, to C. C. Rafn. (Referred to in Antiquarisk Tids- 



skrift, 1843-45, Kjobenhaven, 1845, p. 154; in Mem. Soc. Roy. Antiquaires du 
Nord, 1845-49, Copenhague (n.d.), p. 49; in Compte-rendus Acad. Sci. Paris, xx, 
1845, p. 1368; in L'Institut, xni, 1845, p. 166; in Froriep's Neue Notizen, xxxv, 
1845, p. 161; and in Liitken, Chr. Fr., Indledende Bemaerkninger, etc. En Sam- 
ling af Afhandlinger e Museo Lundii, i, 1888, Kjobenhaven, 1845, p. 5.) 

Lutken, Chr. Fr. l'Exposition de quelques-uns des cranes et des autres ossements 
humains de Minas-gera6s dans le Bresil central decouverts et deterres par le feu 
Professeur P. W. Lund. (Compte-rendu Congr. int. des Americanistes, Copen- 
hagen, 1883, p. 40.) 

Indledende Bemaerkninger om Menneskelevninger i Brasiliens Huler og i de 

Lundske Samlinger. (En Samling af Afhandlinger e Museo Lundii, i, 4, Kjoben- 
havn, 1888, pp. 1-29, with a good abstract in French.) 

Martin, R. Ossements humains, trouves en 1887 par M. Santiago Roth a Baradero, 
etc. (In Lehmann-Nitsche's Nouvelles recherches, etc., 1907, pp. 374-86.) 



LIST OP PUBLICATIONS 391 

Mochi, A. Nota preventiva sul Diprotho?no platensis Ameghino. (Revista del Museo 
de La Plata, xvn, Buenos Aires, 1910-11, pp. 69-70.) 

Appunti sulla paleoantropologia argentina. (Archivio per l'Antropologia e 

la Etnologia, xl, Firenze, 1910, pp. 203-54.) 

Moreno, F. P. Noticias sobre antigiiedades de los Indios, del tiempo anterior a la con- 
quista descubiertas en la provincia de Buenos Aires. (Boletin de la Academia 
Nacional de Ciencias de Cordoba, i, 1874, pp. 130-49.) 

Description des cimetieres et paraderos prehistoriques de Patagonie. (Revue 

d'Anthropologie, l re ser., in, Paris, 1874.) 

Viaje a la Patagonia austral, emprendido bajo los auspicios del Gobierno 

nacional, 1876-77, tomo i, Buenos Aires, 1879. (Reviewed in Revue d'Anthro- 
pologie, 2 me ser., m, 1880, pp. 303-09.) 

Sur deux cranes prehistoriques rapportes du Rio-Negro. (Bulletins de la 



Societe d'Anthropologie de Paris, 3 me ser., in, 1880, pp. 490-97.) 
Morselli, E. Osservazioni critiche sulla parte antropologico-preistorica del recente 

"Trattato di paleontologia " di Carlo Zittel. (Archivio per 1' Antropologia e 

la Etnologia, xxvi, Firenze, 1896, p. 140.) 
Nehring, A. Menschenreste aus einem Sambaqui von Santos in Brasilien. (Ver- 

handl. Berl. Ges. fur Anthr., Eth. und Urg., Sitzung vom 16 Nov. 1895, pp. 

710-21.) 
Outes, F. F. Los Querandies, breve contribucion al estudio de la etnografia argen- 
tina, Buenos Aires, 1897, pp. 87-91. 

and C. Brtjch. Los Aborigenes de la Republica Argentina, Buenos Aires, 1910. 

Pampean formation. The Man of the Pampean formation. (American Naturalist, 

xn, 1897, pp. 827-29. Based on Ameghino's work.) 
Quatrefages, A. de. L'homme fossile de Lagoa Santa en Bresil et ses descendants 

actuels. (Compte-rendu Acad. Sci. Paris, t. 93, no. 22, pp. 882-884.) 

Histoire generale des races humaines. Introduction a l'etude des races 

humaines: [in 2 pts.] Paris, 1887-89, pp. 85-86, 105. 

Reinhardt, J. De brasilianske Knoglehuler og de i dem forekommende Dyre- 

levninger. (En Samling af Afhandlinger e Museo Lundii, i, 4, Kjobenhavn, 

1888, pp. 1-56; Memoir read in 1866.) 
Rivet, P. La race de Lagoa-Santa chez les populations precolombiennes de l'equa- 

teur. (Bull, et Mem. Soc. d'Anthr. Paris, 5 me ser., ix, f. 2, 1908, p. 209 et seq.). 
Roth, S. Fossiles de la Pampa, Amerique du Sud, 2 me catalogue, San Nicolas, 1882, pp. 

3-4 (l re ed.); Genova, 1884 (2 me ed.). 
Beobachtungen uber Entstehung und Alter der Pampasformation in Argen- 

tinien. (Zeitschrift der deutschen geologischen Gesellschaft, xl, Berlin, 1888, p. 

400 et seq.) 

Leber den Schaedel von Pontimelo (richtiger Fontezuelas). (Briefliche 

Mittheilung von Santiago Roth an Herrn J. Kollmann). (Mittheilungen aus 
dem anatomischen Institut im Vesalianum zu Basel (1889), pp. 1-11. Repro- 
duced in Lehmann-Nitsche's Nouvelles recherches, etc.) 

Schwalbe, G. Studien zur Morphologie der sudamerikanischen Primatenformen. 
(Zeitschrift fur Morphologie und Anthropologie, Band xm, Heft 2, Stuttgart, 
1910, pp. 209-58.) 

Senet, R. Los ascendientes del hombre segun Ameghino. (Boletin de la Instruc- 
cion Publica, Buenos Aires, n, no. 6, pp. 1-52.) 

Sera, G. L. Sull' uomo fossile sud-americano. (Monitore Zoologico Italiano, xxn, 
Firenze, 1911, pp. 10-24.) 

Sergi, G. L'apologia del mio poligenismo. (Atti della Societa romana di antropo- 
logia, xv, fasc. 2, Roma, 1909, pp. 187-195.) 

Paleontologie sud-Americaine. (Scientia, vm, Bologna, 1910, pp. xvi-4.) 



392 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

Sievers, P. Review of Ameghino's Sinopsis geologico-paleontologica. (Segundo 
Censo de la Republica Argentina, i, 1898, 148. Petermanns Mittheilungen, 
xlvi, 1900, p. 72.) 

Strain, Isaac G. Extract of a letter giving the synopsis of the translation, by him- 
self, of a letter from Dr. Lund, R. S. A., Copenhagen, to the Historical and Geo- 
graphical Society of Brazil. (Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences, 
Philadelphia, n, 1844-45, Phila., 1846, pp. 11-13.) 

Strobel, P. Materiali di paletnologia comparata raccolti in Sudamerica, Parma, 
1885, 3 fasc, p. 34, pi. vi, fig. 47. 

ten Kate, H. Sur les cranes de Lagoa-Santa. (Bulletins de la Societe d'Anthro- 
pologie de Paris, 3 me ser., vm, 1885, pp. 240-44.) 

Topinard, P. Elements d' anthropologic generale, Paris, 1885. 

Trouessart, E. Les primates tertiaires et l'homme fossile sud-americain. (L' An- 
thropologic, in, 1892, pp. 257-74.) 

Valentin, J. Bosquejo geologico de la Argentina. (Article "Gea" in the third 
edition of the Diccionario geografico argentino, of F. Latzina, Buenos Aires, 1897, 
p. 37.) (Concerns Roth's discoveries.) 

Varela, F. L'homme quaternaire en Amerique. (Congres international des 
sciences anthropologiques tenu a Paris du 16 au 21 aout 1878, p. 288.) 

Verneau, R. Cranes prehistoriques de Patagonie. (L'Anthropologie, v, Paris, 
1894, pp. 420-50.) 

Les anciens Patagons, Monaco, 1903, pp. 126-29. 

Vilanova, J. L'homme fossile du Rio Samborombon. (Compte-rendu Congres 
international des Americanistes, 8 eme sess., Paris, 1890, Paris, 1892, pp. 351-52). 

Virchow, R. Ein mit Glyptodon-Resten gefundenes menschliches Skelet aus der 
Pampa de la Plata. (Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft fur Anthropologie, 
Ethnologie und Urgeschichte, xv, 1883, pp. 465-67.) 

Crania ethnica americana, Berlin, 1892, p. 29 et seq. 

Vogt, C. Squelette humain associe aux glyptodontes. Avec discussion (Mortillet, 
Zaborowski, Vogt). (Bulletins de la Societe d' Anthropologie de Paris, 3 me serie, 
iv, 1881, pp. 693-99.) 

Wilser, L. Das Alter des Menschen in Sudamerika. (Globus, Bd. xciv, Braun- 
schweig, 1908, pp. 333-35.) 

Leben und Heimat des Urmenschen, Leipzig, 1910. 

Zeballos, E. S. Estudio geologico sobre la Provincia de Buenos Aires. (Anales 
de la Sociedad Cientifica Argentina, n, Buenos Aires, 1876, pp. 258-68, 309-21; 
in, 1877, pp. 17-35, 71-80.) 

Zittel, K. A. Handbuch der Palaontologie, Munchen und Leipzig, 1888-94, p. 724. 



ADDENDA 

Since the preceding report was completed, four additional publica- 
tions on some of the remains attributed to ancient man in South 
America have reached the writer, and. he has learned that the sub- 
ject is also dealt with in a more general way in three recent works 
which thus far he has not seen, namely: 

Branca, W., Der Stand unserer Kenntnisse von fossilen Menschen, Liepzig, 1910; 
Sergi, G., L'TJomo secondo le origini, l'antichita, le variazioni e la distribuzione 
geografica, Torino, 1911; and Frassetto, F., Lezioni di Antropologia, 2 vols., 
Bologna, 1911. 

Of the four special papers above mentioned the first to reach the 
writer was that "On ancient man and his predecessors in Argentina," 
by K. Stolyhwo, 1 one of the European delegates to the International 
American Congress of Sciences, held at Buenos Aires in July, 1911. 

Stolyhwo examined the more important of the skeletal remains 
and his conclusions are as follows: 

The skull of Arrecifes (p. 28) : "On the basis of personal examina- 
tion of the specimen I am of the opinion that its form is that of the 
contemporary man." 

The skull of Miramar (pp. 33-34): "Shows an artificial deforma- 
tion." 

The Necochea specimens: "Skull No. I is not artificially deformed 
and its form corresponds completely to that of H. sapiens." No. II 
shows traces of post-mortem deformation. No. Ill is deformed arti- 
ficially besides showing poor reconstruction, including that of the 
orbits. Further, these specimens show no peculiar features in com- 
parison with the skull of H. sapiens and should not be regarded as 
distinct therefrom. They differ in no essential features from skulls 
of the American natives. 

As to the Diproihomo (pp. 34-38), the special features of the frag- 
ment as described by Ameghino became apparent only through faulty 
orientation of the specimen. The fragment "shows no important 
difference from a similar part in the present man." The length of 
the frontal, on which stress has been laid, is duplicated and even 

1 Stolyhwo, K., W sprawie czlowieka kopalnego i jego poprzednik6w w Argentynie; in Sprawozdania 
zposiedzen Towarzystwa Naukowego Warszawskiego, iv, No. 1, Warsaw, 1911, pp. 21-41. 

393 



394 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 52 

exceeded in some, of the modern skulls of whites in the Warsaw col- 
lections and in general the bone is entirely like that of H. sapiens. 
"The position of Diprothomo as a precursor of man is untenable;" 
though, should the geologic position claimed for the fragment become 
firmly established, the specimen would have much weight as evidence 
of the existence of man in the Lower Pliocene. 

The atlas of Monte Hermoso (pp. 31-32) "is entirely like a 
human atlas." A comparison showed that in one of the recent 
atlases of the collection the main features that characterize the 
Monte Hermoso specimen are even more accentuated. The dimen- 
sions of the Monte Hermoso atlas are moderate, such as are found in 
Homo sapiens. The formation, on the basis of this specimen, of a 
new species of man, as attempted by Lehmann-Nitsche, is not justified. 

The femur of Monte Hermoso (p. 30) "does not appear to me 
possibly to proceed from the same individual as the atlas. The 
specimen is of small size and belonged to a much smaller animal 
form." 

Stolyhwo mentions two other communications by Polish men of 
science on the Argentine finds, 1 neither of which, however, appears 
to contain original observations or to be of special importance. 

The next publications received relating to early man in Argentina 
were Schwalbe's postscript 2 and Sergi's paper 3 on the subject of the. 
Diprothomo. 

Schwalbe's paper is a discussion of several of the more recent 
publications dealing with or touching on the Diprothomo (Mochi, Ame- 
ghino, Sergi, Branca, Wilser, Friedemann, and v. Luschan). He 
finds that his views concerning the fragment as expressed in his 
former publication . thereon need no modification; and the obser- 
vations of Friedemann and v. Luschan coincide so closely with his own, 
that he "regards the Diprothomo question as definitely settled and con- 
siders it wholly superfluous and unnecessary to enter again into con- 
sideration of this phantasy-image, which proved to be purely human." 

According to Schwalbe, Branca pronounces himself against the 
notions of Ameghino in regard to the Diprothomo as well as the Tetra- 
prothomo specimens. The Diprothomo fragment is considered by 
Branca, as by v. Luschan, to be clearly of human origin. 

On the other hand, Sergi opposes the opinions of Schwalbe, Friede- 
mann, and v. Luschan, on the Diprothomo. He accepts as correct 
neither the orientation of the fragment as practiced by Ameghino nor 
that of Schwalbe, and essays to pose the same on a modern meso- 

1 Poniatowski, St., O klasyfikacyach wskaznikow antropologicznych; in Sprawozdania z posiedzen 
Towarzystwa Naukowego Warszawskiego, in, No. 7, 1910; and Majewski, E., O czaszce prazczlowieka plio- 
censkiego, Diprothomo platensis, with discussion by K. Stoiyhwo; ibid., n, No. 12, 1909. 

2 Schwalbe, G., Nachtrag zu meiner Arbeit: tlber Ameghino's Diprothomo platensis; in Zeitschr.fur 
Morph. und Anthr., Band xm, Heft 3, Stuttgart, 1911, pp. 533-540. 

3 Sergi, G., Sul Diprothomo platensis Ameghino; in Rivista di Antropologia, xvi, f. 1, pp. 1-12. 



ADDENDA. 395 

cephalic skull, the top of which has been cut off, on the basis of an 
approximation to a natural human position of the roof of the orbits. 1 
The features exhibited by the fragment in this position show that 
the specimen ' ' does not possess characteristics identical with those of 
recent human crania; its distinctive features are not even within the 
limits of the variation of recent man." 

As a result of his observations, it seems to Sergi ' ' that the Dipro- 
thomo may belong to the human family, to the Hominidse, but it sepa- 
rates itself absolutely by many above-described characters from the 
living type of man. These characters do not constitute a type that 
would ordinarily be denominated as inferior; it is a type of its own, a 
type which is related with the hitherto known fossil human forms in 
Europe. . . . For my part," Sergi concludes, " I shall continue to 
denominate the Diprothomo as I have done in dealing with the descent 
of man, namely, Proanihropus." 

Sergi entertains "no doubt regarding the antiquity of the fragment" 
and its age, in his opinion, is confirmed by its morphology. 

Finally, still another reply to the criticisms of Mochi is published 
by Ameghino. 2 It is not possible to enter into the details of this 
extended paper. It relates almost exclusively to the various speci- 
mens representing the Homo pampseus, H. caputinclinatus , and H. 
sinemento. No new data concerning the circumstances of the several 
finds are brought forth, the discussion dealing with the morphologic 
characters of the skulls. Professor Ameghino acknowledges some 
errors in his former statements in regard to certain particulars, but 
retains and reasserts all his main views and beliefs. There are evident 
some incipient modifications or rather developments in these, but 
they do not lead in the direction of Mochi's opinions. 

The above-mentioned publications contain nothing that neces- 
sitates any alteration of or addition to the writer's statements and 
conclusions recorded in the several sections of this report. 

1 A feature which presents considerable individual variations in all races, and hence can easily lead to 
error in such procedure as that adopted by Sergi. Only the mean inclination of these parts in different 
groups of man may be alike. — A. H. 

2 Ameghino, F., Observations au sujet des notes du Dr. Mochi sur la paleoanthropologie Argentine; in 
Anal. Mus. Nac. Buenos Aires, xxn (ser. iii, t. xv), 1911, pp. 181-230. 



INDEX 



Page 

Aconguija Range, reference to 255 

Albarracin, S. J., publication by 51 

Algonquians, reference to 183 

Allen, E. T., article by 56 

Alsatian skulls, reference to 339 

Alvear — 

geologic specimens from 58-64, 79, 93-94 

references to vn, 30 

Ambrosetti, Juan, acknowledgments to. . . vi,226 
Ameghino, Carlos— 

acknowledgments to vi, vn, 384 

connection with — 

Arroyo Siasgo skeleton 262-263 

Monte Hermoso femur 352 

Necochea finds 309 

references to 106, 

107, 111, 271, 272, 273, 276, 277, 301 

stone implements found by 103, 123 

Tetraprothomo femur found by 347 

Ameghino, Florentino— 

acknowledgments to VI, vn, 15, 244, 315, 363 

cited on neolithic industries 107 

cited on several skulls 294 

on age of Argentine finds 11-13 

on Arrecifes skull 225-226 

on Arroyo de Trias remains 197-205, 206, 207 

on Arroyo del Moro remains 272, 273-276 

on Arroyo Siasgo skeleton 262-265, 270 

on Arroyo Siasgo Valley 269 

on " broken-stone " industry 104-106 

on burial methods of Argentine Indians. 278 

on burning of pampas grass 50 

on CarcaraM bones 184, 185, 189-191 

on certain geologic formations 26 

on Diprothomo platensis 318- 

319, 321, 322-324, 326, 334, 335-343, 345-346 

on Fontezuelas skeleton 215-216, 218 

on geologic formation at Arroyo del Barco 38 

on Homo caputinclinatus 395 

on Homo pampxus .... 100-104, 2S9-290, 293, 395 

on Homo sincmento 395 

on Inter-Ensenadean formation 287 

on location of anvil-stones 117 

on markings on human bones 252 

on Miramar remains 290-291, 292, 295 

on Monte Hermoso femur 361 

on Monte Hermoso geologic formation.. . 27, 

362, 363 

on Necochea remains 290, 

309-310,311,315,316-317 

on Ovejero remains 242-244 

on Patagonian skulls 196 

on Samborombon skeleton. 233-234,235-236,266 

on specimens from Argentine coast 149, 150 

on "split-stone ' ' industry 99-104 

on Tetraprothomo argentinus .. . 346-351,352-359 



Ameghino, Florentino— Continued. Page 

on Upper Pampean formation 32 

publications by VI, 51-53, 387-388 

references to ... . 45, 48, 111, 114, 117, 153, 193, 216, 

227, 238, 253, 272, 276, 278, 299, 300, 301 

reply to Outes on ancient stone industry 109-110 

stone implements found by at Punta 

Porvenir 123 

American Indian — 

morphologic modifications in 5 

racial type 183-184 

Animal bones, association of with human 
bones 7-9, 208-209 

Antiquity of man in South America, general 
discussion of 1-9, 385-386 

Argentina — 

aboriginal cultures in 147 

finds in 11-13 

See also specific names of various finds. 

Argentine coast, character of 41, 111-113 

See also Coquina, Sand dunes, Stone in- 
dustries. 

Arldt, Th., publication by 53 

Arreclfes skull — 

description 230-232, 393 

history 225-230 

references to 179, 234, 238, 239, 294, 322 

Arroyo Brusquitas, references to 107, 108 

Arroyo Came, references to 65, 66 

Arroyo Chapadmalal, reference to 107 

See also Chapadmalal. 

Arroyo Corrientes— 

native settlements near 121 

references to 106, 107, 108 

source of white quartzite 115 

Arroyo de Frias remains— 

contrast with Fontezuelas find 220 

critical remarks on 206-209 

history 197-206 

references to 191, 218, 229, 322 

Arroyo del Barco, references to 37,38 

Arroyo del Moro, references to vn, 120, 126 

Arroyo del Moro remains — 

examination of skeletal parts 2S0-284 

history 272-276 

Hrdlicka's observations on 276-280 

See also Homo sinemenlo, Laguna Mala- 
cara, Necochea remains. 

Arroyo de Ramallo, reference to 30 

Arroyo Durazno, references to 107,108 

Arroyo Siasgo remains — 

critical remarks on 269 

geologic considerations 269-272 

history 262-266 

Hrdlicka's examination of 266-269 

references to vn, 235 

See also Homo caputinclinatus. 

397 



398 



INDEX. 



Arroyo Zanjon 210 

Australian skulls, reference to 329 

Aymara head deformation — 

description 299-300 

in skulls from Viedma 301 

references to . . . 194, 195, 197, 266, 267, 2S6, 303, 304 

Aztec, references to 183, 224 

Babor, J., publication by 3S8 

Bahia Blanca— 

climatic observations for 33-34 

references to 15, 17-18, 83, 84, 112 

Bajada Martinez de Hoz, references to . . . 67, 68 
Baradero skeleton— 

critical remarks on 261-262 

history 258-261 

references 217, 322, 338 

Bardeen and Embryo, publication by 236 

Barrancas del Norte, geologic formation 

f 22-24, 25, 26, 64-67 

Barrancas de los Lobos — 

geologic formation of 22, 26-27, 33, 67, 68 

reference to - vrl 

Bavarians, bones of 294 

Beaufils, E., find made by --- 291 

Belgrane an formation, references to 26, 64 

Bell, on Patagonian tibiae 308 

Bello y Rodriguez, cited on measurements 

of femora 307 

Bertillon, on Patagonian skull 195 

"Black stone" implements, references 

to 114, 121-122 

Blake, C. C— 

on Lund's collection 165-167 

on Sumidouro Cave remains 181 

publication by 388 

Boca del Moro, references to 37,80 

Bohemian people, cranial alterations in 5 

Bolivian tribes — 

reference to 170 

skulls 286 

stature 209,224 

Bonaerean formation, references to 26, 65 

Bones— 

markings on, as index of antiquity 7-9, 

252,253,385 
petrographie-microseopic examination of. 97-98 

post-mortem alterations in 1-2, 5-7 

See also Fossilization. 

Bordier, on Patagonian skull 195 

Botocudo— 

references to 175, 195 

skulls 169 

Boucher de Perthes, reference to 188 

Boule, M., publications by 53,388 

Branca, W., on Diprothomo and Tetrapro- 

thomo 393,394 

Brazilian tribes, skeletal remains of. . 157-158, 209 
See also Lagoa Santa. 

Breton brothers, reference to 210 

Brno, skull of 229 

Broca, P.— 

on Arroyo de Frias bones 201, 206 

on Patagonian skull 195, 196 

reference to 196 

Bruch, C. , publication by 391 

Bkun. See Brno. 



Page 

Brunet, L., publication by 53 

Bucking. li- 
on tierra cocida and scoria 92 

publications by 52, 53 

Buenos Aires Province— 

ancient inhabitants 122, 234 

climatic observations 33-34 

description of coast 111-113 

rinds in 11,15, 107, 186, 187 

geologic description 16-18 

physical description of eastern part 31 

specimens of earths from 57-58 

See also names of various localities in 
province. 

Burckhardt, Carl — 

on Baradero skeleton 259 

publication by 390 

Burials, native , among sand dunes 121 

Burmeister, G — 

on Carcarafia bones 184-185. 188-189, 191 

on deformed skulls from Rio Negro 300 

on Fontezuelas bones 215 

on remains of glyptodon 223 

on Saladero skeleton 211 

on Samboromb on skeleton 233 

publications by 51, 388-389 

references to 192, 198, 209, 210, 263 

Buschan, G.— 

on Diprothomo platensis 334 

publications by 389 

Calchaqui— 

atlas 365 

skulls 326,327,333 

Caliche, description of HI, 299 

California— 

caves 227, 299 

reference to 145 

California Indians, skulls of 174, 

175,183,281-282,286 

Campo Peralta— 

geologicnotes 122-123 

native settlements near 121 

stone implements from 117, 118 

Canesa, Andreas, finds made by 289, 291 

Canete (Peru), skulls from 166 

Carcarana bones— 

critical remarks on 192-194 

history 184-192 

references 217, 229 

Carnegie Institution of Washington, 
references to 49, 55 

Castelnau, reference to 166 

C avazutti, E . , references to 272, 309 

Ceara, skull of 170 

Chapadmalal, Chapadmalean, formation— 

description 46 

geologic specimens from 67-68, 

70,77-78,91,92,104,108 

Chapalmalean. See Chapadmalean. 

Chihuahua, reference to 180 

China, loess deposits of — 21, 22, 23 

Chocori remains— 

history 237-239 

Hrdlicka's examination of 239-242 

references to 229, 295, 299, 322 

Claraz, G., publication by 51 



INDEX 



399 



Clark, J. E., references to 319, 320-321 

Clarke, F. W., chemical analyses of bones 

reported by 296-297 

Claussen collection, reference to 165 

Colina Doble, reference to 109 

Colonia Valcheta, reference to 47 

Combes, P. (fils), publication by 389 

Comederos, application of term 209 

Coquina, description of 35-38, 41 

C6rdoba, reference to 16 

Cortadera. See Pampas grass. 
Cro-Magnon skeletal remains, references 

to 4, 239 

Cross, Whitman, on tierra cocida 47 

Cuba, caves of 299 

Cuestas, F. R., acknowledgment to 301 

Dakota clay beds, reference to 49 

Dall, Wm. H.— 

on shell collections from Argentina. . 41-44,247 
reference to 36 

Davies, W., connection with Lund collec- 
tion 165 

Davis, Gualterio, on climate of Argentina. 33-34 

Day, A. L., article by 56 

de Carles, Enrique— 

acknowledgments to vn, vin, 244 

connection with — 

Ovejero find 242, 245 

Samborombon find 233, 234 

references to 235, 252 

Deninger, cited on Diprothomo platensis 338 

Derry, D. E., on Egyptians 5 

Descalzi, N. — 

publication by 51 

reference to 50 

Desor, E., publication by 389 

Desplayadas, application of term 209 

Diprothomo platensis — 

comparison with Homo caputinclinatus . 264,265 

geologic notes on find 343-345 

history 318-324 

Hrdlicka's examination of 325-333 

Hrdlicka's conclusions on 332-333, 345-346 

later reports on 333-343 

references to 274, 276, 289, 310, 359 

skulls described 292, 295, 393-394 

Doering, A., publication by 390 

Ducloux, E. Herrero — 

chemical analyses by 91, 92 

publication by 52 

Dunes. See Sand dunes. 

Dwight, Th., publication by, cited 236 

Ecuador, ancient inhabitants of 179 

E gyptians, as a physical type 4-5 

Embryo. See Bardeen and Embryo. 

English people, cranial alterations in 5 

Ensenadean formation — 

at Punta Porvenir 123 

description 287 

geologic specimens from 66, 67, 69, 70, 74 

references to 12, 26,80, 110 

' ' split-stone ' ' industry from 100 

See also lnter-Ensenadean, Pre- Ensena- 
dean. 

Eskimo, reference to 184 



Esparto grass— 

description 48 

effect of burning 84-85 

Evolution, human — 

according to Ameghino 13, 323 

summary 2-5 

Faggioli, Rodolphe— 

connection with Necochea remains 309 

skeletal remains found by 289 

Fairchlld, J. G., chemical analyses by 56, 

60, 62, 75, 79, 81-82, 86, 296-297 

Florida, references to 35, 182 

Fog6nes, references to 46, 50-51 

FONTEZUELAS REMAINS— 

critical remarks on 221-225 

examination of 98 

history and reports 213-221 

references to 179, 229, 294, 295, 322 

Fossilization of bones, general discussion 

of 181,193,207-208,296-299,315 

See also Bones, Mineralization. 

Frassetto, F., publication by 393 

French people, cranial alterations in 5 

Friedemann, M. — 

on Diprothomo platensis 340 

on Monte Hermoso remains 360-361 

publication by 389 

Fruh, J., publication by 390 

G. A. J. C, publication by 53 

Galley Hill, skull of 229 

Gallindez, D., acknowledgment to 301 

Gaudry, M., reference to 169 

General Alvarado Department, refer- 
ences to 107, 108, 109 

General Belgrano Station, references to. 31,270 
Geologic formations, Ameghino's scheme 

of 322 

German people, cranial alterations in 5 

Gervais, H., publication by 389 

Gervais, P.— 

cited on Carcarafia bones 184, 185, 186 

cited on Lagoa Santa skulls 179 

on Seguin collection 187 

publications by 389 

Gidley, J. W.— 

acknowledgment to 376 

identifications made by 296, 383 

GIUFFRIDA-RUGGERI, V.— 

on Miramar and other skulls - 294 

on Tctraprothomo femur and atlas 359 

publications by 389 

Glacial epochs, description of 20-21 

Gramilla Station, references to 242, 245 

Gran Salado, reference to 18 

Grata cap, L. P., on post-mortem alterations 

in bones 6 

Grim aldi skeletal remains , reference to . . . 4 
Guayaquil femora, reference to 282 

Hague, Arnold, publication by 96 

Hamy, references to 194, 196 

Hansen, Soren— 

on Fontezuelas skeleton ... 216, 217, 219, 220, 22?. 
on Lagoa Santa remains . . . 176-179, 181, 183, 184 

publications by 389 

reference to 179 



400 



INDEX 



Page 

Hartt, reference to 170 

Hatcher collection, references to 140, 147 

Hatches, on the bolas . . . : 147 

Head deformation, discussion of 294, 299 

See also Aymara. 

Heusser, J. C. , publication by 51 

Holmes, W. H., acknowledgment to vi 

Homo caputinclinatus, references to 235-236, 

276,395 
See also Arroyo Siasgo remains. 

Homo neog^eus, references to 347,351,359,360 

Homo pamp.eus — 

comparison of skull with Arroyo Siasgo 

skull 264, 265 

description 310 

examination of 98 

history 289-290 

Hrdlidka's conclusions on 318 

references to 235, 

203, 273, 274, 276, 292, 300, 309, 323, 395 

stone-working by 100-104 

See also Necochea remains. 

Homo pliocenicus, references to 218, 235 

See also Fontezuelas remains. 
Homo primigenius— 

comparison with Miramar skull 292 

references to 221, 273, 275, 276, 290, 323 

Homo sinemento, references to 276, 395 

See also Arroyo del Moro remains, Ne- 
cochea remains. 

Hrdlicka, Ales, publications by v,236 

Hultkrantz, J. V., cited on measurements 

of femora 307 

Hwang River (China), references to . . 19, 20, 21, 23 

Iddlngs, J. P., references to 56, 60, 96-97 

Ihering, von— 

on ancient continent west of Asia 360 

publications by 389,390 

reference to 259 

Illlnoian glacial deposit, reference to 21 

Inter-Ensenadean formation— 

connection with "split-stone" industry.. 100 

description 287-288, 316-317 

references to 101, 109, 123-125 

Iowan glacial deposits, reference to 21 

Iroquois, reference to '. 1S3 

Isle of Pines, caves of 299 

Isthmus of Panama, reference to 9 

Jerseyan glacial deposits, reference to. . . 21 
Jones, F. Wood, on morphology of Egyp- 
tians 5 

Junor, Mr., connection with Diprothomo 
platensis find 318, 319-320, 321, 343-345 

Kansan glacial deposits, reference to 21 

Klaatsch, H, cited on measurements of 
femora 307 

Kobelt, W.— 

on Fontezuelas find 218 

on Samborombon man 235 

publication by 389 

Kolken, A., publication by 389 

Kollmann, J. — 

on Lagoa Santa skulls 172-174, 175, 183 

on Pontimelo skull 216, 21 7-218 



Kollmann, J.— Continued. Page 

on Saladero skeleton 209-211 

publication by 389 

references to 176, 191, 258 

Krapina, Man of, references to 263,275 

La Canada bones, description of 245 

Lacerda, A. de — 

on Lagoa Santa remains 155, 170-171 

publication by 389 

See also Lacerda and Peixoto. 

Lacerda and Peixoto — 

cited by Quatrefages 170 

on Lagoa Santa skulls 168-169, 173 

reference to Cearaskull 170 

publication by 389 

Lacerda, J. B., publication by 389 

Lagoa de Sumidouro, description of. 160-161 

Sec also Sumidouro. 

Lagoa Santa caves (Brazil), references to. 11 
See also Sumidouro. 

Lagoa Santa remains — 

compared with Pontimelo find 216 

critical remarks on 179-184 

history 153-165 

Hrdlicka' s examination of skull 169 

references to 229,295 

See also Sumidouro. 

Laguna de Juncal, reference to 196 

Laguna de los Padhes — 

geologic specimens from 67 

pottery from 120, 151 

references to vn, 49-50, 212. 

worked pebbles from 138 

Laguna Malacara — 

examination of bone from 98 

geologic notes on region 80-82, 287-288 

human remains found at 263, 272 

native settlements near 121 

objects found near 120 

See also Arroyo del Moro, Malacara. 

Lahitte, reference to 291 

Lapa Vermelha cave. See Lagoa Santa 
caves. 

Larrumbe, Francisco, find made by 237 

Las Thermas, reference to 245 

La Tigra remains. See Miramar remains. 

Las Tinajas, reference to 245 

Leboucq, H. — 

publication by 390 

references to 205-206,207 

Lehmann-Nitsche, Robert— 

acknowledgments to vr,239 

cited on measurements of femora 307 

connection with Tetraprothomo find 350 

on Arrecifes skull 226-229, 230, 231 

on Arroyo de Frias finds 205 

on Baradero skeleton 259-260 

on Carcarafia bones 184, 1S5 : 192 

on Chocori skeleton 237-238, 239, 241 

on Diprothomo skull 338 

on Fontezuelas bones 218-219. 220, 221, 224 

on Miramar remains - .' . 290, 291, 293, 295, 302, 303 

on Monte Hermoso atlas 359, 360, 394 

on Necochea remains 310 

on O vejero remains 242 

on Saladero skeleton 211,213 



INDEX 



401 



Lehmann-Nitsche, Robert— Continued. Page 

on Samboromb6n skeleton 236 

on Tetraprothomo argentinus 346-347, 351, 359 

Patagonian skulls ignored by 196 

publications by vi, 3S9 

references to 217, 299 

view of age of Argentine finds 11 

Letdy, Dr. Joseph, reference to 131 

Lista, R., publication by 390 

Loess — 

as evidence of antiquity of bones 193 

description 24-25 

petrographic study of 55 

specimens described 74, 82-84, 86-88, 93, 94 

Lovisato, D., publication by 390 

Lower Miocene, human remains referred to . 12 

Lujan, reference to 193 

Lund, P. W.— 

connection with Lagoa Santa finds 153-165, 

171, 175, 181, 183 

publications by 390 

references to 170, 179 

Lund's collections, reports on 165-179 

Luschan, von — 

on Diprothomo platensis 341 

on Tetraprothomo femur 361 

Lutken, Chr. Fr.— 

on Lagoa Santa finds. : 154, 160, 171-172, 175-176 
publications by 390 

Macalister, A. , on human atlas ?64, 367, 368 

Majewski, E., on Argentine finds 394 

Malacara skeletons, Hrdlieka's examina- 
tion of 280-287 

See also Arroyo del Moro remains. 
Manouvrier, L., cited on measurements of 

femora 307 

Mar del Plata— 

coquina at 37 

geologic character 27, 64 

pottery from 120, 151 

references to. . vn, 15,98,104,109,110, 112,117,119 

stone implements- from 99, 100, 104, 114, 126 

winds at 34 

Mar del Sud, references to 237, 291 

Martin, Rudolf — 

cited on measurements of femora 30 7 

on Baradero skeleton 259-260, 261 

publication by 390 

references to 293 

MaSka collection, importance of 4 

Massachusetts Indian skulls, measure- 
ments of 303 

Matthew, W. D., acknowledgment to 376 

Mayorotti, Jose, reference to 209, 210 

Medanos, meaning of term 112 

See also Sand dunes. 

Melanesians, reference to 183 

Mendez, George M. , references to 263, 270 

Mendoza, references to vm, 15 

Mercedes, reference to 197 

Metallization of bones, discussed by La- 

cerda 170-171 

See also Fossilization. 

Mexican tribes, caves used by 180 

Middle Pampean formation, geologic speci- 
mens from 58, 63 

21535°— Bull. 52—12 -26 



Page 

Middle Pliocene formation, "split-stone" 
industry from 104 

Minas Geraes Province (Brazil), references 

to 11,158 

See also Lagoa Santa. 

Mlndel stage of glaciation, reference to... 21 

Mineralization of bones, reference to 385 

See also Fossilization. 

Miramar— 

geologic character 22, 23, 26, 27 

geologic specimens from 69-79, 

85,89,90,93,96,97 
references to vn, 46, 119, 124, 317 

Miramar remains— 

history 290-295 

Hrdlidka's observations on 295-306 

references to 229,301, 322 

skulls- 
description 98, 301, 302, 393 

references to 179, 239, 309, 310 

Mississippi Valley loess deposits, refer- 
ence to 21 

Mochi, A. — 

on Arrecifes skull 229,230 

on Arroyo del Moro specimens 276 

on Arroyo Siasgo skeleton 265-266 

on Chocori skull 238-239 

on Diprothomo platensis 334-335, 336 

on Miramar skull 295 

on Neeochea finds 310-311 

publications by 391 

reference to -. 395 

Monguillot, reference to 226 

Montana clay beds, reference to 49 

Monte Hermoso — 

description 35, 105-106, 112 

geologic formation 22, 

26, 27, 82-84, 118-119, 361-364 

reference to vn, 104 

site of Tetraprothomo find 346, 347 

stone implements from 104, 118, 126, 138, 150 

Monte Hermoso remains— 

description 394 

Hrdlieka's conclusions on 384 

Hrdlieka's examination of— 

atlas 364-369 

femur 369-383 

later reports 359-361 

Moravia, reference to 4 

Moreno, Francesco P.— 

acknowledgment to vi, vn 

cited on neolithic industries 107 

find made by 301 

on Carcarafia bones 184, 186-187 

on Rio Negro skulls 194-195, 300 

on Tetraprothomo argentinus 346 

publications by 52, 391 

references to 47, 182, 192, 216, 278, 291 , 345 

view of Patagonian skulls 197 

Morphology, as factor in antiquity of human 
remains 1-5 

Morselli, E . , publication by 391 

Mousterian remains, reference to 338 

Naulette, Man of, reference to 275 

Neanderthal Man, references to 275, 

292,323,329,342 



402 



INDEX 



Page 
Nebraskan glacial deposit, reference to. . . 21 
Necochea — 

geologic character 22, 23, 26, 27, 316-317 

geologic specimens from. 80-82,89,90,93,95,96,97 
references to. vn, 51, 98, 104, 114, 117, 118, 119, 263 

stone implements from 109, 126, 138 

Necochea remains — 

description 290,393 

history 308-311 

Hrdlicka's observations on , 311-316 

petrographic-microscopic examination of 

bones 97-98 

references to 229, 322 

Negroid races, references to 183, 

184,255,263,358 

Nehring, A., publication by 391 

Neuquen River, reference to 15 

Nevada, reference to 96 

Nordenskjold, reference to 291 

North America, ancient man in 3-4 

Oligocene, human remains referred to 12 

Oliva, Jose, reference to 272 

Osprey (Florida) skeletons, reference to. 232 

Otero, R., reference to 209 

Otomi, reference to 1S3 

Outes, Felix F. — 

acknowledgement to vi 

on antiquities of Argentine coast 149 

on ' ' split-stone ' ' industry 106-109 

publications by 52, 53, 391 

reference to 114 

Ovejero remains— 

critical remarks on 255 

history 242-247 

observations on 98, 245-253 

references to vm, 11, 212, 322, 355, 358 

See also Sotelo. 

Paja brava . See Pampas grass. 

Pampas — 

Atlantic coast of 32-38 

description 29-30, 41 

Pampas grass, description of 47, 50 

Pampean formation — 

age 15 

climatic variations 21 

description '. . 18-27, 39-41 

references to 100, 107 

specimens 57 

See also Post-Pampean, Upper Pampean. 

Panchito, Araucanian cacique, reference 
to 330 

Papuans, references to 178, 184 

Parana River— 

character ~. 30-31 

references to 15, 18 

Parodi, L., references to 272, 276, 278, 309, 317 

Paso de la Laguna de Juncal, reference to 301 

Patagonia — 

archeologic finds in 11, 119-120 

references to 100 

stone implements from 146, 147, 150 

See also Rio Negro. 

Patagonians, ancient— 

critical remarks on 196-197 

history of specimens 194-196 



Patagonians, ancient— Continued. Page 

measurements 306 

skulls — 

measurements 304-305, 

326-327,330,331,333 

references to 286, 298 

See also Tehuelche. 

Peixoto, Rodriguez, publication by 389 

See also Lacerda and Peixoto. 

Pergamino, reference to 209 

Peruvian tribes — 

references to 170, 250 

skulls 286-287, 327,331 

stature 209, 224 

Pico, Pedro, reference to 210 

Pigmy race, references to 224, 243-244 

Piegan skull, measurement of 327, 328, 331 

Pima, reference to 183 

Pirez, Cesar, on Arroyo Siasgo find 271-272 

Pithecanthropus, references to 351, 360 

Plains Tribes (North America), reference 

to 183 

Plata Peralta— 

examination of cow's bone from 98 

geologic notes on 122-123 

reference to 37 

Playas — 

description 113-117, 288 

reference to 51 

site of stone implements 118 

Pliocene , human remains referred to 12 

Polynesians, reference to 183 

Poniatowski, St., on Argentine finds 394 

Pontimelo skull. See Fontezuelas remains. 
Post-Pampean formation, description of. . 27-32 

Potomac Valley, reference to. 150 

Pottery — 

Arroyo de Frias find 204 

collection by Dr. Hrdlicka near Puerto 

San Bias 150-151 

description 120, 125 

reference to 138 

Predmost, reference to 4 

Pre-Ensenadean formation, definition of. 322 
Pre-Kansan glacial deposit, reference to. 21 

Proanthropoid^e , references to 334,359,395 

Prothomo, references to 289, 290, 359 

Pueblos, ancient northeastern, refer- 
ence to 183 

Puelchean formation, description of. 83-84, 

105, 362, 363 
Puerto Belgrano, site of stone implements. 109 
Puerto San Blas. See San Bias. 
Pueyrredon Department, references to. 107,109 

Punta Mogote, references to 98, 103 

Punta Negra, site of stone implements 109 

Punta Porventr— 

description 123-125 

paleoethnologic importance of 108 

references to 37, 38, 103, 107, 117 

seashore site of ancient man » 99 

stone implements from 106-107 

Quaternary — 

epochs 20-21 

man in 4,12,153,186 



INDEX 



403 



Page 
Quatrefages, A. de, on Lagoa Santa re- 
mains 169-170, 171-172, 173, 175, 178 

Querandi, reference to 1S7 

Rafn, C. C, references to 154,159-160 

Ramorino, G., references to 197, 198 

Regalia, E., publication by cited 236 

Reinhardt, J.— 

cited as to Lagoa Santa skulls 171,173,175 

on Lund collection 167-168 

publications by 391 

Richthofen, reference to 22 

Rio Arrecifes, references to 213, 215 

Rio Carcarana, references to. 184, 185, 188, 189, 210 
Rio Carcara&a finds. See Carcarana bones. 
Rio Colorado — 

geologic specimens from 84-85 

references to. 15, 18, 45, 363 

Rio Curac6, reference to 18 

Rio das Velhas, references to 154, 161 

Rio de la Plata, references to. 16, 17, 18, 31, 313-345 
Rio Dulce de Santiago, reference to. . 244,251,255 

Rio Hondo, references to 243,245,263 

See also Santiago del Estero. 

Rio Neuquen, reference to 278 

Rio Negro — 

character 197 

native settlements near 121 

references to 45, 85, 187 

shell beads from 126 

Rio Negro Valley— 

archeologic finds 119-120, 126, 144 

human remains from 11, 182, 

216, 227, 278, 286, 298, 300, 301 

reference to vn 

stone implements from 142-144, 146 

See also Patagonians, ancient; Viedma. 

RlO QUEQUEN— 

native settlements near 121 

references to 35, 109, 117, 315 

Rio Saladillo, reference to 46 

Rio Salado — 

description 31, 32, 270 

reference to 263 

Rio Samboromb6n, reference to 218 

Riss stage of glaciation, reference to 21 

Rivet, P. — 

on Arrecifes skull 179, 229, 230 

on Diprothomo platensis 333 

on Fontezuelas skulls 179 

on Lagoa Santa race 179, 183, 295 

on Miramar skulls 179,295 

publications by 391 

Romero, Antonio A., on tierra cocida and 
scoria 91, 92 

Rosario, reference to 15 

Rosenberg, E., publication by, cited 236 

Roth, Santiago— 

acknowledgment to vi,vn 

on Baradero skeleton 258-259, 260 

on Carcarana bones 185, 191-192 

on Fontezuelas bones 213- 

215,216,217,219,221-223 

on Middle Pampean formation 27 

on Saladero skeleton 209-211, 212, 213 

on Tetraprothomo argentinus 346 



Roth, Santiago— Continued. Page 

on Upper Pampean formation 27,32 

publications by 52, 390, 391 

references to 15, 

45, 58, 59, 61, 63, 205, 217, 220, 238, 291, 350 
view of age of Argen tine finds 11 

Saladero (Arizona) Indians, reference to. . 221 

Saladero skeleton — 

critical remarks 211-213 

history of find 209-211 

references to 217, 229 

Saladillo — 

geologic specimens from 63, 85 

reference to 45-46 

Sambaqui, reference to 215 

Samboromb6n skeleton — 

critical remarks 236-237 

history 233-236 

references to 229, 266, 322 

San Blas— 

geologic specimens from 85-86, 92-93 

native settlement at 121 

pottery found at 120, 150-151 

Sand blast, phenomenon of 120 

Sand dunes— 

characteristic of Argentine coast 112-113 

description 33-35, 41, 288-289 

relation to native settlements 120-121 

San Juan, references to vm, 15 

San Lorenzo, reference to 30, 40 

Santa Catharina Province, reference to. . . 170 

Santa Fe Province, human remains found 
in 191 

Santiago del Estero Province — 

human remains found in 263 

references to 242, 243, 255 

See also Ovejero. 

San Xavier— 

destitute of pottery 120 

human tibiae from 308 

references to 307, 331 

stone implements found at 119 

SCHWALBE, G — 

on Diprothomo platensis. . . . 295, 338-340, 343, 394 

on Miramar skull 295 

on Tetraprothomo remains 361 

publications by 391 

Scorle — 

general description 45-51, 89, 94-97 

specimens described 71-82, 85-86, 92 

Scott, W. B., publication by 390 

Segutn, FRANgois— 

connection with Carcarana find 184-185 

, finds made by 189, 190, 191, 193 

reference to 210 

Sellards, E. H.,oncoquinaof Floridacoast. 35-36 

Senet, R.— 

on Ameghino's finds relating to early 

man 334 

publication by 391 

Sera, G. L., publication by 391 

Sergi, G.— 

on Diprothomo platensis 334, 393, 394-395 

on finds relating to early man 359 

on Homo pampxus 294 

publications by 391 

Shells, finds of 125, 126, 246, 247 



404 



INDEX 



Page 

Shepherd, E. S., article by « 56 

Shoshoni Indians, reference to 131, 183 

Sierra de C6rdoba, reference to 17 

Sierra de la Ventana, references to 15, 

. 16, 17, 18, 105 

Sierra Tandil, references to 16, 17, 18, 190 

Sievers, P.— 

cited on Miramar skull 290 

publication by 392 

Simpson, Edward Marsh — 

acknowledgments to 321, 344 

references to 319-320 

Sioux, reference to 183, 221 

Smith, G. Elliot, on morphology of ancient 

Egyptians 5 

Sotelillo, finds made near 245, 246 

Sotelo — 

description 246, 255-258 

reference to 245 

skull from 258 

Spy, Man of, references to. 263, 275, 329, 355, 356. 358 
Stelnmann, G.— 

on geologic formations of Monte Hermoso. 351 

on pampa formation 338 

publications by 52, 390 

reference to 259 

Sternum, perforation of 236 

Stolyhwo, K., on finds relating to early 

man - m 393-394 

Stone implements— 

anvils 101-102, 103, 104, 114, 117-118, 119, 

120, 125, 126, 127, 133, 135, 138, 142, 146, 150, 277 

arrowheads 28, 

114, 119, 120, 138, 139, 146, 197, 200, 202, 210 

awls 144 

axes 118, 119, 125, 142-143 

beads 120, 125 

blades 119, 139, 140 

bolas-stones 125, 138, 142, 147 

"chip" defined 126 

chipped white quartzite 139-140 

chisels 102, 103-104, 198 

chronologic bearing 148-150 

classes of 144-145 

club-heads , — 141 

domestic utensils 140-142, 147 

drills 119, 125, 140, 143, 144, 146 

ethnic bearing 144-145 

flakes 107 

flint weapon 210 

general description 101-104 

grinding stones 114, 127, 277 

hammers 103, 114, 119, 

125, 126-128, 133, 135, 138, 141, 142, 143, 146, 150 
hatchet-chisel. See chisel, above, 
hatchet- wedge. See chisel, above. 

knives 107, 125, 131, 

137, 138, 140, 143, 144, 146, 147, 150, 189-190, 198 

made of beach pehbles 126-138 

miscellaneous 202, 203, 273 

mortars 114, 119, 125, 138, 141, 142, 204 

muller-pestles 141 

mullers 114, 

119, 125, 127, 138, 141, 142, 143, 150, 180 

paint grinders 279 

pebble nuclei 132-133 



Stone implements— Continued. Page 

pestles 114^119, 125, 138, 141, 142, 204 

polishing stones 204 

pressure implements 138, 146 

projectile points 125, 138, 143 

references to 311, 315 

rubbing stones • 127 

scrapers 107, 108, 114, 119, 125, 

137, 138, 139-140, 143, 144, 146, 147, 150, 202 

shaping of 126-133 

spalls .'. 126 

spearheads 119, 146 

terminology. , 126 

teshoa 126, 131, 132 

varieties 138 

Stone industries of Argentine coast — 

' ' broken-stone " industry 104-1 10 

"split-stone" industry 99-104, 274, 275 

supposedly ancient worked stones 111-122 

Strain, Isaac G.— 

publication by 392 

translator of Lund's writings 158 

Strobel, P. , publication by 392 

Sumidouro cave (Brazil), skeletal remains 
from 167-168 

Superior Miocene, human remains referred 
to 12 

Syphilis, effect on bones 312, 314 

Tarahumare— 

caves used by 180 

skulls of 183, 286, 303 

Tarasco, references to 183, 224 

Tehuelche — 

femora 307 

references to 140, 187, 195 

skulls of 219 

ten Kate, Hermann— 

on Lagoa Santa remains 174-175, 183 

on perforation in Indian sterna 236 

publication by 392 

reference to 176 

Tertiary, period of man's origin. .• 2 

Tetraprothomo argentlnus — 

description of femur and atlas 352-359 

history 346-352 

references 243, 322, 323. 334 

See also Monte Hermoso remains. 

Tierra cocida— 

description 45-51 

petrographic study of 55 

specimens described 69-71, 

73-74, 76-79, 84-85, 93-94 
technical summary as to 88-89 

Tierra del Fuego, reference to 179 

Tolman, C. F., on formation of caliche 299 

Topinard, P.— 

on Patagonian skulls 195-196 

publication by 392 

Tosca formation — 

as evidence of antiquity of bones 190, 193 

description 25-26, 111, 319 

reference to 107 

Trenton, N. J., skulls, reference to v 

Triprothomo, references to 323, 359 

Trouessart, E . , publication by 392 

Tucuman Province, Argentina, references 
to vm, 15,255 



INDEX 



405 



Turquoise beads, reference to 126 

United States Geological Survey, refer- 
ences to 56, 60, 62, 75, 79, 82, 86 

Upper Eocene, human remains referred to. 12 
Upper Pampean formation, description 

of 27-32,40-41 

Uruguay, archeologic conditions on coast. . . 138 
Utah tribes, references to 183, 303 

Valentin, J., publication by 392 

Varela, F., publication by 392 

Vaughan, T. Wayland, references to 36, 182 

Verneau, li- 
on deformed skulls from Viedma 300 

on measurements of femora 307 

publications by 392 

reference to 239 

Vertebrae, dorso-lumbar, anomaly of 236 

Viedma — 

human remains found in 301, 3§3 

reference to 197 

source of stone implements 119, 143 

Vilanova, J. — 

on Samborombon skeleton 235 

publication by 392 

Villanueva, reference to 31 

Virchow, R. — 

on Fontezuelas find 215,216,218 

on Lagoa Santa crania 179 

publications by 392 



Page 

Vogt, C— 

on Fontezuelas skeleton 213-214, 217 

publication by 392 

references to 215, 217 

Volk, E., publication by v 

Walcott, Charles D., Secretary, Smith- 
sonian Institution, acknowledgment to vi 

Walker, Charles H., & Co., references to. 319, 344 

"White stone" implements — 

application of term 114 

summary : 121-122 

White, W. P., article by 56 

Wh-ser, L.— 

on Diprothomo platensis 334 

publications by 392 

Wisconsin glacial deposits, reference to... 21 

Woodward, S. P., Planorbti recorded by. . . 167 

Wright, Fred. Eugene, publication by, 

cited 56 

WURM STAGE OF GLACIATION 21 

Zeballos, E. S. — 

publication by 392 

reference to 199 

Zirkel, F., publication by 390 

Zittel, K. A., publication by 392 



o 



